Q.1 Justify “Halting Problem of Turing machine is undecidable”.

Justification: "Halting Problem of Turing Machine is Undecidable"

The Halting Problem asks whether a given Turing Machine MMM halts on
a given input www. This problem is undecidable, meaning there is no
algorithm or Turing Machine that can solve it for all possible inputs and
machines.

Steps to Justify

1. Understanding the Problem

The Halting Problem can be stated as:

 Input: A Turing Machine MMM and a string www.

 Output: Determine whether MMM, when started on www, will halt

(stop computing) or run forever.

2. Claim

There is no general algorithm or Turing Machine that can always decide

the Halting Problem for all possible MMM and www.

3. Proof by Contradiction

The Halting Problem is proved undecidable using a contradiction. Here’s

how:

1. Assumption: Assume there exists a Turing Machine HHH (Halting

Decider) that solves the Halting Problem:

o H(M,w)="Yes"H(M, w) = \text{"Yes"}H(M,w)="Yes" if MMM

halts on www.

o H(M,w)="No"H(M, w) = \text{"No"}H(M,w)="No" if MMM does

not halt on www.

2. Construct a Special Turing Machine DDD:

o Let DDD be a Turing Machine that works as follows:

 D(M)D(M)D(M): Given MMM as input, it calls H(M,M)H(M,

M)H(M,M):

 If H(M,M)="Yes"H(M, M) = \
text{"Yes"}H(M,M)="Yes" (i.e., MMM halts on its
 own description), then D(M)D(M)D(M) goes into an
infinite loop.

 If H(M,M)="No"H(M, M) = \text{"No"}H(M,M)="No"
(i.e., MMM does not halt on its own description),
then D(M)D(M)D(M) halts.

3. Run DDD on Itself:

o Now consider what happens when DDD is run with its own
description as input, D(D)D(D)D(D):

 If H(D,D)="Yes"H(D, D) = \text{"Yes"}H(D,D)="Yes",
D(D)D(D)D(D) should loop indefinitely (by DDD's
definition). But HHH predicted it would halt, which is a
contradiction.

 If H(D,D)="No"H(D, D) = \text{"No"}H(D,D)="No",
D(D)D(D)D(D) should halt (by DDD's definition). But HHH
predicted it would not halt, which is also a contradiction.

4. Conclusion of Contradiction:

o The contradiction shows that the assumption of HHH's

existence is false.

o Therefore, the Halting Problem is undecidable.

4. Implications

 Undecidability: No algorithm or Turing Machine can determine

whether any arbitrary Turing Machine halts on a given input.

 Impact on Computability: The Halting Problem highlights

limitations in algorithmic problem-solving.

5. Conclusion

The Halting Problem is undecidable because it is impossible to design a

Turing Machine that can universally predict whether another Turing
Machine will halt on any input. The proof demonstrates this using a
contradiction involving a self-referential machine.
Q.2 Define the Class P and Class NP and Problem with their example in

detail.

Class P and Class NP: Definitions and Explanation

In computational complexity theory, Class P and Class NP categorize

problems based on their solvability and verification within certain time
limits.

1. Class P (Polynomial Time Problems)

Definition:

Class P consists of all decision problems that can be solved by a

deterministic Turing Machine in polynomial time.

 Polynomial Time: The time taken to solve the problem is

proportional to a polynomial function of the input size nnn.

Key Characteristics:

 Problems in P are considered efficiently solvable.

 Algorithms for these problems run in O(nk)O(n^k)O(nk), where kkk

is a constant.

Example of a Problem in P:

Sorting Numbers:

 Problem Statement: Given an array of nnn numbers, arrange

them in ascending order.

 Algorithm: Use a sorting algorithm like Merge Sort or Quick Sort,

which runs in O(nlog⁡n)O(n \log n)O(nlogn).

 Decision Version: Given an array and a number xxx, is xxx the

kthk^{th}kth smallest number?

2. Class NP (Non-deterministic Polynomial Time Problems)

Definition:

Class NP consists of decision problems for which a solution can be

verified by a deterministic Turing Machine in polynomial time.
  These problems may not be solvable in polynomial time, but if a
solution is provided, its correctness can be checked efficiently.

Key Characteristics:

 Problems in NP can be solved in polynomial time by a non-

deterministic Turing Machine.

 Many NP problems do not have known polynomial-time algorithms

but can be verified in O(nk)O(n^k)O(nk).

Example of a Problem in NP:

Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) - Decision Version:

 Problem Statement: Given a set of cities, distances between

them, and a number kkk, is there a route visiting each city exactly
once with a total distance ≤k\leq k≤k?

 Verification: If a route is provided, calculate the total distance and

check if it meets the ≤k\leq k≤k condition. This can be done in
polynomial time.

3. Relationship Between P and NP

 P⊆NPP \subseteq NPP⊆NP: Every problem that can be solved in

polynomial time can also be verified in polynomial time.

 P=NPP = NPP=NP or P≠NPP \neq NPP=NP: It is unknown whether

all problems that can be verified in polynomial time can also be
solved in polynomial time.

4. NP-Complete Problems

 NP-complete problems are the hardest problems in NP.

 If any NP-complete problem is solved in polynomial time, then

P=NPP = NPP=NP.

Q.3 Explain Satisfiability Problem and SAT Problem and comment on NP

Completeness of the SAT Problem

Satisfiability Problem (SAT Problem): Definition and Explanation

The Satisfiability Problem (SAT) is a classic decision problem in

computer science. It asks whether there exists an assignment of truth
values (True or False) to variables that makes a given Boolean formula
evaluate to True.

1. Boolean Formula

A Boolean formula is composed of:

 Variables: x1,x2,…,xnx_1, x_2, \dots, x_nx1,x2,…,xn (which can be

True or False).

 Logical Operators: AND (∧\land∧), OR (∨\lor∨), and NOT (¬\

neg¬).

2. SAT Problem

 Input: A Boolean formula ϕ\phiϕ.

 Output: Does there exist an assignment of truth values to the

variables such that ϕ\phiϕ evaluates to True?

Example of SAT Problem

Given the formula:

ϕ=(x1∨¬x2)∧(¬x1∨x2)\phi = (x_1 \lor \neg x_2) \land (\neg x_1 \lor
x_2)ϕ=(x1∨¬x2)∧(¬x1∨x2)

Steps:

 Assign x1=Truex_1 = Truex1=True and x2=Falsex_2 = Falsex2

=False:

o First clause: (x1∨¬x2)=True(x_1 \lor \neg x_2) = True(x1∨¬x2

)=True.

∨x2)=False.
o Second clause: (¬x1∨x2)=False(\neg x_1 \lor x_2) = False(¬x1

 Assign x1=Falsex_1 = Falsex1=False and x2=Truex_2 = Truex2

=True:

o Both clauses evaluate to TrueTrueTrue.

Thus, the formula is satisfiable because there exists an assignment
(x1=False,x2=Truex_1 = False, x_2 = Truex1=False,x2=True) that makes
ϕ=True\phi = Trueϕ=True.

NP-Completeness of SAT Problem

1. NP-Complete Class

A problem is NP-complete if:

1. It belongs to the class NP (its solution can be verified in polynomial

time).

2. Every problem in NP can be reduced to it in polynomial time.

2. SAT is in NP

 Given a solution (truth assignments), verifying whether the formula

evaluates to True can be done in polynomial time.

3. SAT is NP-Complete (Cook-Levin Theorem)

 In 1971, Stephen Cook proved that SAT is NP-complete.

 He showed that any problem in NP can be reduced to SAT in

polynomial time.

 This means SAT is as hard as any problem in NP and is considered

the first NP-complete problem.

Implications of NP-Completeness of SAT

1. If a polynomial-time algorithm exists for SAT, then P=NPP =

NPP=NP, meaning all problems in NP can also be solved in
polynomial time.

2. Many other NP-complete problems (like 3-SAT, Subset Sum, and

Traveling Salesman) can be reduced to SAT, making it a foundational
problem in computational complexity.

Variants of SAT

 3-SAT Problem: Each clause in the formula has exactly three

literals.

 k-SAT Problem: Each clause has at most kkk literals.

These variants are also NP-complete for k≥3k \geq 3k≥3.

Q.4 What do you mean by polynomial time reduction? Explain with
suitable

example.

Polynomial-Time Reduction

Definition:
A polynomial-time reduction is a method of transforming one problem
AAA into another problem BBB in such a way that:

1. The transformation process itself can be performed in polynomial

time.

2. A solution to problem BBB can be used to solve problem AAA.

This concept is used to compare the complexity of problems and show

that solving one problem efficiently implies the ability to solve another
efficiently.

Why is Polynomial-Time Reduction Important?

 It is a key tool for proving that a problem is NP-complete.

 If problem AAA can be reduced to BBB in polynomial time and BBB

can be solved efficiently, then AAA can also be solved efficiently.

Steps in Polynomial-Time Reduction

1. Input Conversion: Transform the input of problem AAA into an

equivalent input for problem BBB.

2. Solution Translation: If a solution to problem BBB is obtained,

convert it back to solve problem AAA.

3. Efficiency: Both transformation and solution conversion must be

achievable in polynomial time.

1. Problems Involved

Subset Sum Problem:

  Given a set of integers S={a1,a2,…,an}S = \{a_1, a_2, \dots,
a_n\}S={a1,a2,…,an} and a target TTT, determine if there is a
subset of SSS that sums to TTT.

Knapsack Problem:

 Given nnn items, each with a weight wiw_iwi and a value viv_ivi, and
a maximum weight WWW, determine if there is a subset of items
whose total weight ≤W\leq W≤W and total value ≥V\geq V≥V.

2. Reduction Process

We transform a Subset Sum Problem instance into a Knapsack

Problem instance:

1. Input Conversion:

o Let each integer aia_iai in the Subset Sum Problem be treated

as an item in the Knapsack Problem.

o Set the weight wiw_iwi and value viv_ivi of each item to

aia_iai.

o Set the Knapsack's capacity W=TW = TW=T and the minimum

required value V=TV = TV=T.

2. Solution Translation:

o If the Knapsack Problem finds a subset of items with a total

weight ≤W\leq W≤W and total value ≥V\geq V≥V, this subset
corresponds to a subset of SSS that sums to TTT in the Subset
Sum Problem.

3. Efficiency:

o The transformation (assigning weights, values, and capacities)

can be done in linear time, which is polynomial.

3. Example

Subset Sum Problem:

 Set S={3,5,7}S = \{3, 5, 7\}S={3,5,7}, Target T=8T = 8T=8.

Conversion to Knapsack Problem:

  Items: (w1=3,v1=3),(w2=5,v2=5),(w3=7,v3=7)(w_1 = 3, v_1 = 3),
(w_2 = 5, v_2 = 5), (w_3 = 7, v_3 = 7)(w1=3,v1=3),(w2=5,v2=5),
(w3=7,v3=7).

 Knapsack Capacity: W=8W = 8W=8.

 Minimum Value: V=8V = 8V=8.

Solving Knapsack:

 Subset {3,5}\{3, 5\}{3,5}:

o Total Weight = 3+5=83 + 5 = 83+5=8, Total Value = 3+5=83

+ 5 = 83+5=8.

o The solution satisfies both weight and value constraints.

Back to Subset Sum:

 The subset {3,5}\{3, 5\}{3,5} from the Knapsack corresponds to

the subset of SSS that sums to 888.

Q.5 Define and Compare Class P and Class NP Problem with suitable
diagram.

Definition of Class P and Class NP Problems

Class P: Problems Solvable in Polynomial Time

  Definition:
Class P contains all decision problems that can be solved by a
deterministic Turing Machine in polynomial time.

 Characteristics:

o Problems are considered "efficiently solvable."

o Algorithms exist with time complexity O((n^k), where k is a

constant.

 Example:

o Sorting a list of numbers (e.g., using Merge Sort in O(nlogn)).

Class NP: Problems Verifiable in Polynomial Time

 Definition:
Class NPNPNP consists of all decision problems where a solution, if
given, can be verified by a deterministic Turing Machine in
polynomial time.

 Characteristics:

o Problems may not have an efficient solution, but if a solution

is proposed, it can be verified efficiently.

 Example:

o Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) Decision Version:

Given a set of cities, distances, and a number k, verify if a
proposed route has a total distance ≤k.

Comparison Between Class P and Class NP

Aspect Class P Class NP

Problems solvable in Problems verifiable in

Definition
polynomial time. polynomial time.

Key Solution can be verified

Efficiently solvable.
Feature efficiently.

Verification can be deterministic,

Algorithm
Deterministic algorithms. but solving may require non-
Type
deterministic methods.

Relationsh P⊆NPP \subseteq NPP⊆NP May or may not contain PPP

ip (all problems in PPP are also completely (open question).
Aspect Class P Class NP

in NPNPNP).

Sorting, Matrix
Examples TSP, Subset Sum, 3-SAT.
Multiplication, Finding GCD.

Q.6 What makes a problem NP-Complete? How do we prove a problem is

NP-complete? Are all decision problems NP-complete?

What Makes a Problem NP-Complete?

A problem is considered NP-complete if it satisfies two conditions:

1. The problem is in NP (Non-deterministic Polynomial time):

o This means that if a solution to the problem is provided, we

can verify its correctness in polynomial time using a
deterministic Turing machine.

2. The problem is NP-hard:

o This means that every problem in NP can be reduced to this

problem in polynomial time. In other words, if we can solve
the NP-complete problem in polynomial time, then we can
solve all problems in NP in polynomial time.

o A problem AAA is NP-hard if every other NP problem can be

reduced to AAA in polynomial time.

If both conditions are met, the problem is considered NP-complete.

How to Prove a Problem is NP-Complete?

To prove that a problem is NP-complete, follow these general steps:

1. Prove the problem is in NP:

o Show that given a proposed solution, we can verify it in

polynomial time. This ensures that the problem is in the NP
class.

2. Prove the problem is NP-hard (by reduction):

 o To prove the problem is NP-hard, we need to reduce a known
NP-complete problem to the given problem in polynomial time.

o This means showing that any problem in NP can be

transformed into the problem we are proving to be NP-
complete in polynomial time. This is typically done by taking a
known NP-complete problem (such as 3-SAT, Vertex Cover,
or Traveling Salesman) and showing how any instance of
that problem can be transformed into an instance of the
problem you are proving to be NP-complete.

Are All Decision Problems NP-Complete?

No, not all decision problems are NP-complete. The classification of

decision problems can be divided into several categories:

1. P (Polynomial Time):

o These are problems that can be solved in polynomial time.

Every problem in PPP is trivially in NP, but not all NP problems
are in P (unless P=NPP = NPP=NP).

2. NP (Non-deterministic Polynomial Time):

o These are problems for which solutions can be verified in

polynomial time but may not necessarily be solvable in
polynomial time.

3. NP-Complete:

o Problems that are both in NP and NP-hard. They are the

hardest problems in NP, meaning that if any NP-complete
problem can be solved in polynomial time, all problems in NP
can be solved in polynomial time.

4. NP-Hard:

o These problems are at least as hard as the hardest problems

in NP. However, they may not be decision problems, and they
do not have to be in NP.

5. Co-NP:

o These are problems where the complement of the problem is

in NP. The famous question is whether NP=Co−NPNP = Co-
NPNP=Co−NP (it is an open question in computer science).
Q.7Explain the following terms with respect to computations complexity

with example.

i) Solvable Vs Unsolvable problem

ii) Decidable Vs. Undecidable problem

iii) P Vs NP problem

1. Solvable vs. Unsolvable Problems

Solvable Problems:

 Definition:
A problem is said to be solvable if there exists an algorithm or
method that can find the correct solution in a finite amount of time
for all possible inputs.

 Example:

o Sorting: The problem of sorting a list of numbers is solvable

because algorithms like Merge Sort and Quick Sort can sort
numbers in a finite time (polynomial time).

o Finding the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD): Using

Euclid's algorithm, we can find the GCD of two numbers in
polynomial time.

Unsolvable Problems:

 Definition:
A problem is unsolvable if there is no algorithm that can solve
the problem for all possible inputs in a finite amount of time. These
problems are typically beyond the capabilities of computational
machines.

 Example:

o The Halting Problem: Given a Turing machine and an input,

determine whether the machine will halt or run forever. There
is no general algorithm that can solve this problem for all
possible inputs, making it unsolvable.

2. Decidable vs. Undecidable Problems

Decidable Problems:

 Definition:
A problem is decidable if there exists a mechanical procedure
(or algorithm) that can determine, in a finite amount of time,
whether any given input belongs to the language or set described
by the problem.

 Example:

o Even Number Problem: Given a number, decide if it is even

or odd. This problem is decidable because there is a simple
algorithm that checks whether a number is divisible by 2.

o Context-Free Grammar Membership Problem: Given a

string and a context-free grammar, determine whether the
string can be generated by the grammar. This problem is
decidable.

Undecidable Problems:

 Definition:
A problem is undecidable if there is no algorithm that can
determine, in a finite amount of time, whether a given input belongs
to the language or set described by the problem for all possible
inputs.

 Example:

o The Halting Problem: The question of whether a given

Turing machine will halt on a given input is undecidable
because no algorithm can solve it for all cases.

3. P vs. NP Problems

P (Polynomial Time) Problems:

 Definition:
A problem is in P if there exists an algorithm that solves the
problem in polynomial time, meaning the time it takes to solve the
problem grows at a rate that is a polynomial function of the size of
the input.

 Example:

o Sorting: Algorithms like Merge Sort or Quick Sort solve the

sorting problem in O(nlog⁡n)O(n \log n)O(nlogn) time, which is
polynomial time.
 o Matrix Multiplication: Multiplying two n×nn \times nn×n
matrices can be done in polynomial time (e.g.,
O(n3)O(n^3)O(n3) using standard algorithms).

NP (Non-deterministic Polynomial Time) Problems:

 Definition:
A problem is in NP if given a proposed solution, we can verify
whether it is correct in polynomial time. However, finding the
solution may or may not be possible in polynomial time.

 Example:

o Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP): Given a list of cities

and a proposed route, we can easily verify if the total distance
is less than a given value in polynomial time. But finding the
shortest route (solution) is not known to be solvable in
polynomial time.

o 3-SAT Problem: Given a Boolean expression in Conjunctive

Normal Form (CNF), checking whether a given assignment of
truth values satisfies the expression can be done in
polynomial time, but finding the satisfying assignment is not
known to be solvable in polynomial time.

Q.8 Explain in brief the term “recursively enumerable”.

Recursively Enumerable (RE) Languages

A recursively enumerable (RE) language is a type of formal language

for which there exists a Turing machine that can accept all strings that
belong to the language. However, for strings that do not belong to the
language, the Turing machine might never halt (i.e., it might run
forever).

Key Characteristics:

1. Accepting the language:

There is a Turing machine MMM that will accept any string in the
 language. If the string is in the language, the Turing machine halts
and accepts the string.

2. Non-halting for non-members:

For strings not in the language, the Turing machine may either reject
the string or run indefinitely without halting. This means the
machine doesn't necessarily reject the non-members but simply
might not stop.

Example:

 Example 1: The language of all valid programs

(computational problems) that halt:
The language of all Turing machine programs that halt is recursively
enumerable. A Turing machine can simulate a given program and
accept it if the program halts. If the program doesn't halt, the Turing
machine will run forever.

Formal Definition:

 A language LLL is recursively enumerable ifb there exists a

Turing machine MMM such that:

o If w∈Lw \in Lw∈L, then MMM halts and accepts www.

o If w∉Lw \notin Lw∈/L, then MMM either halts and rejects www,
or it may never halt.

Q.9 State and explain with suitable example

i) Decidable Problem

ii) Undecidable Problem

iii) Church-Turing Thesis

i) Decidable Problem

Definition:
A decidable problem is a problem for which there exists an algorithm
(or Turing machine) that can determine, in finite time, whether a given
input belongs to the language or not. In other words, the algorithm will
always produce an answer (yes or no) for any input in a finite number of
steps.

Explanation:

For a problem to be decidable, there must be a mechanical procedure

(algorithm) that can always decide the correct answer for any possible
input.

Example:

 Example 1: Even Number Problem:

The problem asks whether a given number nnn is even. A simple
algorithm can check if nnn is divisible by 2 and return "yes" if true,
or "no" if false. This is a decidable problem because there is a
clear, finite algorithm to solve it.

 Example 2: String Membership in a Regular Language:

Given a string and a regular language (described by a finite
automaton or regular expression), determining if the string belongs
to the language can be done in finite time. This is a decidable
problem.

ii) Undecidable Problem

Definition:

An undecidable problem is a problem for which no algorithm (or Turing

machine) can determine, in finite time, whether a given input belongs to
the language. For some inputs, the algorithm might not halt, and thus
cannot provide an answer.

Explanation:

Undecidable problems are problems for which no general algorithm exists

that can always decide the correct answer. These problems typically
involve infinite possibilities or require infinitely many steps to solve, which
is beyond the capability of any algorithm.

Example:

 Example 1: The Halting Problem:

The problem asks whether a given Turing machine will halt or run
forever on a specific input. Alan Turing proved that this problem is
 undecidable because no algorithm can decide for all possible Turing
machines and inputs whether they will halt or not.

 Example 2: The Post Correspondence Problem (PCP):

Given two sets of strings, the problem asks if there is a sequence of
indices that can be formed by concatenating strings from both sets
such that the resulting concatenated strings are equal. This problem
is undecidable because no general algorithm can solve it for all
possible sets of strings.

iii) Church-Turing Thesis

Definition:

The Church-Turing Thesis is the hypothesis that any effectively

calculable function (i.e., a function that can be computed by a human
using a finite procedure) can be computed by a Turing machine. In other
words, it suggests that the concept of "computability" defined by Turing
machines is equivalent to the intuitive idea of what can be computed
algorithmically.

Explanation:

The Church-Turing Thesis posits that all reasonable models of computation

(such as lambda calculus, recursive functions, and Turing machines) are
equivalent in terms of the types of functions they can compute. It is not a
formal theorem that can be proven, but rather a conjecture about the
nature of computation.

Example:

 Example 1: Turing Machines and Functions:

Suppose we have a function, such as adding two numbers. The
Church-Turing Thesis asserts that there is no function that is
computable by a human but not computable by a Turing machine. In
other words, adding two numbers can be done by both a human
using a finite algorithm and a Turing machine using its formal
operations.

 Example 2: Lambda Calculus and Turing Machines:

The lambda calculus, developed by Alonzo Church, is another model
of computation. The Church-Turing Thesis implies that everything
computable by lambda calculus can also be computed by a Turing
machine, and vice versa.

Q.10 What is reducibility in Computability Theory ? Explain in detail, the

polynomial - time reduction approach for proving that a problem is
NPComplete.
Reducibility in Computability Theory

In computability theory, reducibility refers to the ability to

transform one problem into another problem in such a way that the
solution to the new problem can be used to solve the original problem.
If you can reduce a problem AAA to problem BBB, it means that solving
problem BBB will allow you to solve problem AAA.

Types of Reductions:

1. Many-One Reduction (or Mapping Reduction):

A problem AAA can be reduced to problem BBB using a many-one
reduction if there is a function that transforms any instance of AAA
into an instance of BBB, such that the answer to the transformed
problem is the same as the answer to the original problem.

2. Turing Reduction:
A problem AAA can be reduced to problem BBB if a Turing
machine can solve AAA by making a finite number of queries to
a decision oracle for problem BBB. Essentially, AAA can be solved
using BBB as a subroutine.

Polynomial-Time Reduction for NP-Completeness

Definition of Polynomial-Time Reduction:

A problem AAA is said to be polynomial-time reducible to a problem

BBB if there exists a polynomial-time algorithm that can transform
any instance of AAA into an instance of BBB, such that the answer to
AAA is the same as the answer to BBB.

In other words, if we can reduce problem AAA to problem BBB in

polynomial time, and if we know that BBB is solvable in polynomial
time, then AAA is also solvable in polynomial time. This is crucial for
proving whether a problem is NP-Complete.
Q.11 Explain with suitable example and diagrams

i) Halting problem of TM

ii) Multitape TM

iii) Universal TM

i) Halting Problem of Turing Machine

Definition:

The Halting Problem refers to the decision problem of determining,

given a description of a Turing machine MMM and an input string www,
whether MMM halts (finishes its computation) or runs forever on www.

Explanation:

Alan Turing proved that the Halting Problem is undecidable. There is

no general algorithm that can solve the halting problem for every
possible Turing machine and input. In other words, there is no Turing
machine that can decide for every MMM and www whether MMM will
halt or run forever.

Proof by Contradiction:

1. Assume that we have a machine HHH (a hypothetical halting

machine) that can decide if a Turing machine MMM halts on input
www.

2. Now, construct a new machine DDD that uses HHH in the following
way:

o D(M,w)D(M, w)D(M,w) runs as follows:

 If H(M,w)H(M, w)H(M,w) returns "halts," then D(M,w)D(M,

w)D(M,w) loops forever.

 If H(M,w)H(M, w)H(M,w) returns "does not halt," then

D(M,w)D(M, w)D(M,w) halts.

3. Now consider what happens when DDD is given DDD itself as input:

o If H(D,D)H(D, D)H(D,D) says "halts," then DDD must loop

forever, but it would be halting.

o If H(D,D)H(D, D)H(D,D) says "does not halt," then DDD must

halt, but it would not halt.

This creates a contradiction, which shows that such a machine HHH

cannot exist.
Example:

Given a Turing machine MMM and an input string www, there is no

Turing machine that can always tell whether MMM will halt on www or
run forever.

ii) Multitape Turing Machine (MTM)

Definition:

A Multitape Turing Machine is a variation of the standard Turing

machine, where instead of a single tape, it has multiple tapes. Each
tape has its own read/write head, which allows the machine to work
with multiple pieces of information simultaneously.

Explanation:

 A standard Turing machine has a single tape and one read/write

head, which limits the machine’s ability to process multiple pieces of
information in parallel.

 A multitape Turing machine has kkk tapes and kkk corresponding

read/write heads. These tapes can be used to store different
portions of the input, intermediate results, or auxiliary data.

The key benefit of a multitape Turing machine is that it can simulate

computations more efficiently, but it does not change the class of
languages that can be recognized. Both single-tape and multitape
Turing machines have the same computational power (they recognize
the same class of languages, i.e., recursively enumerable languages),
but multitape machines can sometimes perform computations more
quickly.

Example:

Suppose you want to check if a string has balanced parentheses. A

single-tape Turing machine needs to scan the string multiple times,
while a multitape Turing machine could use one tape to store the string
and another tape to mark the positions of opened and closed
parentheses, potentially speeding up the process.

Diagram of Multitape Turing Machine:

less

Copy code

Tape 1: [ a ] [ b ] [ ( ] [ c ] [ ) ] [ d ]
 Tape 2: [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Tape 3: [ ] [ ] [] [] [] []

Here, we have three tapes, and each tape can be accessed

independently by its corresponding read/write head.

iii) Universal Turing Machine (UTM)

Definition:

A Universal Turing Machine (UTM) is a Turing machine that can

simulate any other Turing machine MMM. Given a description of a
Turing machine MMM and an input www, a UTM can simulate MMM on
www and produce the same output that MMM would.

Explanation:

The concept of a UTM is crucial because it shows that a single Turing

machine can compute anything that is computable. It is based on the
idea of simulation: a UTM takes as input a description of a Turing
machine (its transition function, state set, and tape alphabet) and
simulates the computation of that machine on a given input.

 The UTM reads the description of MMM and the input www from its
own tape, and simulates the execution of MMM on www. The UTM
behaves as if it were the machine MMM, and it halts with the result
of MMM's computation.

Example:

Consider a Turing machine MMM that adds two numbers. A UTM can
simulate MMM by interpreting MMM's description and running the
appropriate steps to add the numbers.

Diagram of a Universal Turing Machine: