Introduction to Electronic Circuits & Labs

Lecture #02 (Chapter 02)

: Basic Physics of Semiconductors

Prof. Yoon, Sang Won

Sustainable Mobility EE Technology (SMEET) Lab.

Semiconductor-package Module EE Technology (SMEET) Lab.
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Seoul National University

Spring 2025
Prof. Sang Won Yoon
 Introduction to Electronic Circuits & Labs

Contents
▪ 2.1 Semiconductor materials and their properties

▪ 2.2 PN-junction diodes

▪ 2.3 Reverse Breakdown

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What is a Semiconductor?
▪ Some keywords
• Metal (Conductor) – Semiconductor – Insulator
• Fermi level (EF)

Wikiland

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Semiconductor Physics
▪ Semiconductor devices serve as heart of microelectronics.
▪ PN junction is the most fundamental semiconductor device.

Wdep
Gate
MOSFET Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
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Charge Carriers in Semiconductor

• To understand PN junction’s IV characteristics, it is important to
understand charge carriers’ behavior in solids, how to modify
carrier densities, and different mechanisms of charge flow.

• (Conduction) Electrons

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Silicon Crystal
▪ Do you remember Chemistry?
• valence electrons (원자가전자)
• covalent bond (공유결합)
# of Electrons
1 2 3
Z Name 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d Notation
1
1H 1 1s
2 He 2 1s 2
3 Li 2 1 1s 2 2s1
4 Be 2 2 1s 2 2s2
5B 2 2 1 1s 2 2s2 2p1
6C 2 2 2 1s 2 2s2 2p2
7N 2 2 3 1s 2 2s2 2p3
8O 2 2 4 1s 2 2s2 2p4
9F 2 2 5 1s 2 2s2 2p5
10 Ne 2 2 6 1s 2 2s2 2p6
11 Na 2 2 6 1 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s1
12 Mg 2 2 6 2 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2
13 Al 2 2 6 2 1 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
14 Si 2 2 6 2 2 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
15 P 2 2 6 2 3 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
16 S 2 2 6 2 4 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
17 Cl 2 2 6 2 5 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
18 Ar 2 2 6 2 6 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
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Silicon Crystal
• Si has four valence electrons. Therefore, it can form covalent
bonds with four of its neighbors.
• When temperature goes up, electrons in the covalent bond can
become free.

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Electron-Hole Pair Interaction

• With free electrons (conduction electrons) breaking off covalent
bonds, holes are generated.
• Holes can be filled by absorbing other free electrons, so
effectively there is a flow of charge carriers.

Si Si Si

Si Si Si

Si Si Si

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Si: From Atom to Crystal

▪ Energy states in Si atom → energy bands in Si crystal
• The highest nearly-filled band is the valence band.
• The lowest nearly-empty band is the conduction band.

Conduction band
(4N states)

Valence band
(4N states)

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Energy Band Diagram

▪ Simplified version of energy band model, indicating
• Bottom edge of the conduction band (Ec)
• Top edge of the valence band (Ev)
• Ec and Ev are separated by the bandgap energy, EG

free electron (conduction electron)

1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Ec
electron energy

EG = 1.12 eV (Si at 300 K)

Ev
hole

distance
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Wide BandGap (WBG) Semiconductors

• Commercialized examples
- Silicon + Carbon (Silicon carbide, SiC)
- Gallium + Nitrogen (Gallium Nitride, GaN)

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Free Electron Density at a Given Temperature

▪ Eg, or bandgap energy determines how much effort is needed
to break off an electron from its covalent bond.
• There exists an exponential relationship between the free-
electron density and bandgap energy.

− Eg
ni = 5.2 10 T exp
15 3/ 2
electrons / cm 3
2kT
ni (T = 300 0 K ) = 1.08 1010 electrons / cm 3
ni (T = 600 0 K ) = 1.54  1015 electrons / cm 3

- n = number of free electrons (conduction electrons)/cm3

- p = number of holes/cm3
- ni = intrinsic carrier concentration

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Doping

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Doping (N type)
▪ Pure Si can be doped with other elements (impurities) to
change its electrical properties.
• For example, if Si is doped with P (phosphorous), then it has
more electrons, or becomes type N (electron).

Donors (Group V): P, As

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Doping (P type)
▪ If Si is doped with B (boron), then it has more holes, or
becomes type P.

Acceptors (Group III): B

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Periodic Table

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Periodic Table

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Summary of Charge Carriers

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Terminology

donor: impurity atom that increases n

acceptor: impurity atom that increases p

n-type material: contains more electrons than holes

p-type material: contains more holes than electrons

majority carrier: the most abundant carrier

minority carrier: the least abundant carrier

intrinsic semiconductor: n = p = ni ni  1.4 1010 cm−3 (at 300 K)

extrinsic semiconductor: doped semiconductor
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Electron and Hole Densities

np = ni
2
Mass action law:
• The product of electron and hole densities is ALWAYS equal to the
square of intrinsic electron density regardless of doping levels”
p  NA
2
n
n i
n-type
NA p-type

n  ND p  NA
Majority Carriers :
2
2
ni ni
Minority Carriers : p n
ND NA
n  ND
ni2 ni 2
ND  n=1016 cm-3 Hole concentration? p =p   1.17  104 holes cm −3
n ND

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Mobile Charge Carriers in Semiconductors

▪ Three primary types of carrier action occur inside a
semiconductor
1) Drift: charged particle motion under the influence of an electric
field.
2) Diffusion: particle motion due to concentration gradient or
temperature gradient.
3) Recombination-generation (R-G)

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First Charge Transportation Mechanism: Drift

▪ The process in which charge particles move because of an
electric field is called “drift”.
• Charge particles will move at a velocity that is proportional to the
electric field.

→ →  has the dimensions of v/E :

vp =  p E
→ →  cm/s cm 2 
vn = − n E  = 
 V/cm V  s 

• (Ex 2-5) A uniform piece of n-type of Si that is 1 m long senses

a voltage of 1 V. Determine the velocity of the electrons.
E = V / L = 104 V/cm
v = n E = 1350 104 [cm 2 /(V  s)* V/cm]  t = 7.4 ps
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Current Flow: General Case

• Electric current is calculated as the amount of charge in
‘v meters’ that passes thru a cross-section if the charge travel
with a velocity of v [m/s].
- In case of electrons, I n = − ( vn  W  h )  ( n  q ) q = 1.6 10−19 [C]
– Why negative?
- Current density of
– electrons J n = n E  n  q = −vn  n  q vn = − n E

v meters

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Current Flow: Drift

▪ Since velocity is equal to E, drift characteristic is obtained by
substituting v with E in the general current equation.
• The total current density consists of both electrons and holes.
Conductivity of a
J n = n E  n  q J p = pE  p q semiconductor is
J tot = n E  n  q +  p E  p  q = q ( n n +  p p ) E =  E  = q( n n +  p p)
Resistivity   1 / 
• (Ex. 2-6) In an experiment, it is desired to obtain equal electron
and hole drift currents. How should the carrier densities be
chosen?

n n =  p p np = ni2 In Si, n / p =1350/480=2.81

n p n p
= p= ni n= ni p = 1.68ni n = 0.596ni
p n p n
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Velocity Saturation
▪ A topic treated in more advanced courses is velocity
saturation.
• In reality, velocity does not increase linearly with electric field.
It will eventually saturate to a critical value.

0 0
= vsat =
1 + bE b
0
v = E
Slope ~  0 E
1+  v = E
vsat

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Velocity Saturation
• (Ex. 2-7) A uniform piece of semiconductor 0.2 m long sustains
a voltage of 1V. 0 = 1350 cm / (V  s) & vsat = 10 cm / s
2 7

Determine the effective mobility.

0
L=0.2 m, V=1 V : E=50kV = = 174 cm 2 /(V  s)
0
1+ E
vsat

• Now, calculate the maximum allowable voltage such that the

effective mobility is only 10% lower than μ0.
0
 = 0.9 0 = V for 0.9 0 = 16.5 mV
0
1+ E
vsat

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Second Charge Transportation Mechanism: Diffusion

▪ Charge particles move from a region of high concentration to a

region of low concentration.
• It is analogous to an every day example of an ink droplet in water.
Diffusion

High Low
Concentration Concentration

• (Ex. 2-8) Explain how the current flows.

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Current Flow: Diffusion

▪ Diffusion current is proportional to the gradient of charge
(dn/dx) along the direction of current flow.
• Its total current density consists of both electrons and holes.
• Flux: the rate of movement of particles across a unit area
dc
c1 F = −D (# of ptls/scm2)
c2
dx
x1 x2  J = qF

dn dp
I = AqDn J p = − qD p
dx dx
dn dn dp
J n = qDn J tot = q ( Dn − Dp )
dx dx dx
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Example: Linear vs. Nonlinear Charge
Density Profile
• Linear charge density profile means constant diffusion
current.
• whereas nonlinear charge density profile means varying
diffusion current.

• (Ex. 2-9) Find Jn if carriers are electrons.

dn N dn − qDn N −x
J n = qDn = −qDn  J n = qD = exp
dx L dx Ld Ld
J n = constant J n = not constant

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Einstein's Relation
▪ While the underlying physics behind drift and diffusion
currents are totally different, Einstein’s relation provides a
mysterious link between the two.

D kT
=
 q

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Diode’s Three Operation Regions

▪ In order to understand the operation of a diode, it is necessary
to study its three operation regions: equilibrium, reverse bias,
and forward bias.

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PN Junction (Diode)
▪ When N-type and P-type dopants are introduced side-by-side
in a semiconductor, a PN junction or a diode is formed.

Donors

N-type
P-type

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Current Flow Across Junction: Diffusion

▪ A diffusion current flows across the junction from each side.
• Because each side of the junction contains an excess of holes or
electrons compared to the other side, there exists a large
concentration gradient.

• (Ex. 2-11) NA=1016 cm-3 and

ND=51015 cm-3. Find hole and
electron concentrations in the
n and p regions.

ni2
pp  N A, n p   1.1  104 cm −3
NA
ni2
nn  N D , pn   2.3  104 cm −3
ND
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Depletion Region
▪ As free electrons and holes diffuse across the junction, a
region of fixed ions is left behind. This region is known as the
“depletion region.”

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Equilibrium
▪ In thermal equilibrium, the diffusion force and the E-field force
exactly balance each other.

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Current Flow Across Junction: Drift

▪ The fixed ions in depletion region create an electric field that
results in a drift current.

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Current Flow Across Junction: Equilibrium

▪ At equilibrium,
• the drift current flowing in one direction cancels out the diffusion
current flowing in the opposite direction, creating a net current of
zero.
▪ The figure shows the charge profile of the PN junction.

I drift , p = I diff , p
I drift ,n = I diff ,n

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Built-in Potential
▪ Because of the electric field across the junction, there exists a
built-in potential.
• Its derivation is, starting from I drift , p = I diff , p
dV
J p = pE  p  q dp E=−
dV dp
dp q p pE = qD p dx
− p p = Dp
J p = −qDp dx dx dx
dx
V( x2 ) pp
dp Dp p p
V ( x1 ) − V ( x2 ) =
− p 
V( x1 )
dV =D p 
pn
p
ln
 p pn
D kT
= kT p p kT N A N D N AND
 q V0 = V ( x1 ) − V ( x2 ) = ln , V0 = ln = VT ln
q pn q ni 2 ni 2
p  NA
V0: voltage difference developed across the depletion region
2
ni
n
NA
Why ? V(x)
V0

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Built-in Potential
• (Ex. 2-13) Determine V0 @ root temperature (T=300K) when
NA=21016 cm-3, ND=41016 cm-3

 26mV ln
( 2  10 )  ( 4  10 )
16 16

 768 mV
ni  1.8 1010 [cm -3 ] V0
(1.08 10 ) 10 2

• (Ex. 2-14) How much does V0 change if NA or ND is increased by one

order of magnitude?

10 N A  N D N A  ND
V0 = VT ln − VT ln = VT ln (10 )  26mV  ln (10 )  60mV
ni 2 ni 2

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Diode in Reverse Bias

▪ When the N-type region of a diode is connected to a higher
potential than the P-type region, the diode is under reverse
bias, which results in wider depletion region and larger built-in
electric field across the junction.

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Reverse Biased Diode’s Application: Voltage-
Dependent Capacitor
▪ The PN junction can be viewed as a capacitor.
• By varying VR, the depletion width changes, changing its
capacitance value; therefore, the PN junction is actually a
voltage-dependent capacitor.

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Voltage-Dependent Capacitance
• The equations that describe the voltage-dependent capacitance
are
Cj =
C j0  si q N A N D
1
, C j0 =
VR 2 N A + N D V0
1+
V0

• (Ex. 2-15) Determine the device capacitor

when VR=0V and VR =1V, with NA=21016 cm-3, ND=91015 cm-3

N AND
V0 = VT ln  0.73 V
ni 2

C j 0  2.65 10−8 F/cm 2 = 2.65 10 −16 F/ m 2 = 0.265 fF/ m 2

C j = C j0 when VR=0

C j  0.172 fF/ m 2 when VR=1V

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Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

▪ A very important application of a reverse-biased PN junction
is VCO, in which an LC tank is used in an oscillator. By C j0
C =
changing VR, we can change C, which also changes the j

1+
VR
oscillation frequency. V0

1 1
f res =
2 LC

• (Ex. 2-16) Tank capacitance is realized as the pn junction. Find

the change of the oscillation frequency when VR changes from 0
to 2V. The circuit operates at 2 GHz and diode area is 2000μm2.

@ VR=0V
C j0
C j 0  0.265 fF/cm 2 → C j ,tot (VR = 0) = C j 0  (2000  m 2 ) = 530 fF Cj   2000  m2 = 274 fF  f res 2V = 2.79 GHz
2V
2
Prof. Sang Won Yoon @ f res = 2 GHz  L  11.9 nH 1+ 43
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Diode in Forward Bias

▪ When the N-type region of a diode is at a lower potential than
the P-type region, the diode is in forward bias.
• The depletion width is shortened and the built-in electric field
decreased.

V0-VF

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Minority Carrier Profile in Forward Bias

▪ Under forward bias, minority carriers in each region increase
due to the lowering of built-in field/potential.
• Therefore, diffusion currents increase to supply these minority
carriers.
Equilibrium Forward bias

p p ,e kT p p p p, f
pn , e = V0 =
q
ln
pn pn , f =
exp
V0 V0 − VF
kT exp
VT VT = VT
q
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Diffusion Current in Forward Bias

▪ Diffusion current will increase in order to supply the increase
in minority carriers. The mathematics are explained.
p p, f p p ,e p p, f p p ,e p  N A N A NA
pn = pn , f − pn ,e = − = −  −
V −V V V −V V V −V V
exp 0 F exp 0 exp 0 exp F exp 0 exp 0 exp F exp 0
VT VT VT VT VT VT VT VT
NA V
 (exp F − 1)
V VT
exp 0
VT NA V ND V
I tot  (exp F − 1) + (exp F − 1)
V VT V VT
ND V exp 0 exp 0
n p  (exp F − 1) VT VT
V VT
exp 0
VT V Dn Dp
I s = Aqni ( +
2
I tot = I s (exp F − 1) )
VT N A Ln N D L p
Is: reverse saturation current

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Minority Charge Gradient

▪ Minority charge profile should not be constant along the x-
axis; otherwise, there is no concentration gradient and no
diffusion current.
• Recombination of the minority carriers with the majority carriers
accounts for the dropping of minority carriers as they go deep
into the P or N region.

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Forward Bias Condition: Summary

▪ In forward bias, there are large diffusion currents of minority
carriers through the junction.
▪ However, as we go deep into the P and N regions,
recombination currents from the majority carriers dominate.
These two currents add up to a constant value.

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IV Characteristic of PN Junction
▪ The current and voltage relationship of a PN junction is
exponential in forward bias region, and relatively constant in
reverse bias region.
VD
I D = I S (exp − 1)
VT

• (Ex. 2-19) How much change in VD is required to increase the

current by a factor of 10?

= VD = 60 mV
I   10 I D   ID 
 = VT ln   + VT ln (10 )
VF V
I D = I s (exp − 1)  I s (exp F ) VF = VD = VT ln  D  VD10 = VT ln 
VT VT  IS   IS   IS 
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Parallel PN Junctions
▪ Since junction currents are proportional to the junction’s
cross-section area. Two PN junctions put in parallel are
effectively one PN junction with twice the cross-section area,
and hence twice the current.

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Constant-Voltage Diode Model

▪ Diode operates as an open circuit if VD< VD,on and a constant
voltage source of VD,on if VD tends to exceed VD,on.

Simplify

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Example: Diode Calculations

▪ This example shows the simplicity provided by a constant-
voltage model over an exponential model.
• For an exponential model, iterative method is needed to solve for
current, whereas constant-voltage model requires only linear
equations.

• (Ex. 2-21) Calculate Ix for Vx=3V and 1V using

(a) an exponential model with IS=10-16A and
(b) a constant-voltage model with VD,on=800mV.

IX
VX = I X R1 + VD = I X R1 + VT ln
IS
Guess VD=750 mV → VD=799 mV → VD=? mV
VX − VD
IX = = 2.25 mA I X = 2.201 mA
R1
I X = 2.2mA for VX = 3V
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Reverse Breakdown
▪ When a large reverse bias voltage is applied, breakdown
occurs and an enormous current flows through the diode.

• Breakdown in the pn junction by one of the two mechanisms.

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Zener vs. Avalanche Breakdown

• Zener breakdown is a result of the large electric field inside the
depletion region breaking electrons or holes off their covalent bonds.
• Avalanche breakdown is a result of electrons or holes colliding with
the fixed ions inside the depletion region.

High e-field tears the remaining Avalanche effect

covalent electrons from their bonds.

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