Chapter 13

Linear and angular motion

Why it is important to understand: Linear and angular motion
This chapter commences by defining linear and angular velocity and also linear and angular acceleration.
It then derives the well-known relationships, under uniform acceleration, for displacement, velocity and
acceleration, in terms of time and other parameters. The chapter then uses elementary vector analysis,
similar to that used for forces in Chapter 7, to determine relative velocities. This chapter deals with the
basics of kinematics. A study of linear and angular motion is important for the design of moving vehicles.

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• appreciate that 2π radians corresponds to 360°
• define linear and angular velocity
• perform calculations on linear and angular velocity using ω = 2πn and v = ωr
• define linear and angular acceleration
• perform calculations on linear and angular acceleration using ω2 = ω1 + αt and a = rα
• select appropriate equations of motion when performing simple calculations
• appreciate the difference between scalar and vector quantities
• use vectors to determine relative velocities, by drawing and by calculation

The relationship between angle in radians (θ), arc

13.1â•… The radian length (s) and radius of a circle (r) is:
â•… s = rθ (13.1)
The unit of angular displacement is the radi-
an,€where€one radian is the angle subtended at the cen- Since the arc length of a complete circle is 2πr and the
tre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius, angle subtended at the centre is 360°, then from equa-
as€shown in Figure 13.1. tion (13.1), for a complete circle,
2πr = rθ ╅╇or╅╅╇θ = 2π radians
Thus, 2π radians corresponds to 360°(13.2)
r
r as stated in Chapter 1.
1 rad

r
13.2â•… Linear and angular velocity
Linear velocity v is defined as the rate of change of
linear displacement s with respect to time t, and for mo-
Figure 13.1 tion in a straight line:
Mechanical Engineering Principles, Bird and Ross, ISBN 9780415517850
 172â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles

change of displacement
linear velocity = Problem 2.â•… A car is travelling at 64.8 km/h and
change of time has wheels of diameter 600 mm.
s (a)â•…Find the angular velocity of the wheels in
i.e. ╇ v = (13.3)
t both rad/s and rev/min.
The unit of linear velocity is metres per second (m/s). (b)â•…If the speed remains constant for 1.44 km,
determine the number of revolutions made by
Angular velocity a wheel, assuming no slipping occurs.
The speed of revolution of a wheel or a shaft is usually
measured in revolutions per minute or revolutions km m 1 h
(a) 64.8 km/h = 64.8 ×â•›1000 ×
per second, but these units do not form part of a h km 3600 s
coherent system of units. The basis used in SI units is 64.8
the angle turned through (in radians) in one second. ╅╅╇ = m/s
3.6
Angular velocity is defined as the rate of change of = 18 m/s
angular displacement θ, with respect to time t, and for i.e. the linear velocity, v, is 18 m/s
an object rotating about a fixed axis at a constant speed:
The radius of a wheel is (600/2) mm = 0.3 m
angle turned through
angular velocity = From equation (13.6), v = ωr, hence ω = v/r
time taken
18
θ i.e. the angular velocity, ω = = 60 rad/s
i.e. ω= (13.4) 0.3
t From equation (13.5), angular velocity, ω = 2πn,
The unit of angular velocity is radians per second (rad/s). where n is in revolutions per second. Hence
An object rotating at a constant speed of n revolutions
 n = ω/2π and angular speed of a wheel in revolu-
per second subtends an angle of 2πn radians in one sec-
tions per minute is 60ω/2π; but ω = 60 rad/s,
ond, that is, its angular velocity,
60 × 60
ω = 2πn rad/s(13.5) hence angular speed = = 573 revolu-
2π
From equation (13.1), s = rθ, and from equation (13.4), tions per minute (rpm)
θ = ωt, hence (b) From equation (13.3), time taken to travel
s
s = rωt╇or╇ = ωr 1.44 km at a constant speed of 18 m/s is:
t
Part Three

s 1440 m
However, from equation (13.3), v = = 80 s.
t 18 m/s
Since a wheel is rotating at 573 revolutions per
hence v = ωr  (13.6)
minute, then in 80/60 minutes it makes
Equation (13.6) gives the relationship between linear
573 × 80
velocity, v, and angular velocity, ω. = 764 revolutions.
60
Problem 1.â•… A wheel of diameter 540 mm is
rotating at (1500/π) rev/min. Calculate the angular Now try the following Practice Exercise
velocity of the wheel and the linear velocity of a
point on the rim of the wheel.
Practice Exercise 73â•…Further problems on
linear and angular
From equation (13.5), angular velocity ω = 2πn, where
velocity
n is the speed of revolution in revolutions per second,
1500 1. A pulley driving a belt has a diameter of
i.e. n = revolutions per second. 360 mm and is turning at 2700/π revolutions
60π
 1500  per minute. Find the angular velocity of the
Thus, angular velocity, ω = 2π   = 50 rad/s pulley and the linear velocity of the belt
 60π 
assuming that no slip occurs.
The linear velocity of a point on the rim, v = ωr, where [ω = 90 rad/s, v = 16.2 m/s]
r is the radius of the wheel, i.e.
2. A bicycle is travelling at 36 km/h and the
r = 0.54/2â•… orâ•… 0.27 m. diameter of the wheels of the bicycle is
Thus, linear velocity, v = ωr = 50 × 0.27 = 13.5 m/s
 Linear and angular motionâ•… 173

500 mm. Determine the angular velocity of Problem 3.â•… The speed of a shaft increases
the wheels of the bicycle and the linear veloc- uniformly from 300 revolutions per minute to
ity of a point on the rim of one of the wheels. 800 revolutions per minute in 10 s. Find the angular
[ω = 40 rad/s, v = 10 m/s] acceleration, correct to 3 significant figures.

ω 2 − ω1
From equation (13.9), α =
t
13.3â•… Linear and angular acceleration Initial angular velocity,
ω1 =
Linear acceleration, a, is defined as the rate of change  300 rev/min = 300/60 rev/s
of linear velocity with respect to time. For an object 300 × 2π
= rad/s,
whose linear velocity is increasing uniformly: 60
final angular velocity,
change of linear velocity
linear acceleration = 800 × 2π
time taken
ω2 = rad/s and time, t = 10 s.
60
v 2 − v1
i.e. â•…â•…â•… a =  (13.7) Hence, angular acceleration,
t
800 × 2π 300 × 2π
The unit of linear acceleration is metres per second −
α= 60 60 rad/s2
squared (m/s2). Rewriting equation (13.7) with v2 as 10
the subject of the formula gives:
500 × 2π
= = 5.24 rad/s2
â•…â•… v2 = v1 + at (13.8) 60 × 10

where v2 = final velocity and v1 = initial velocity. Problem 4.â•… If the diameter of the shaft in
Angular acceleration, α, is defined as the rate of problem 3 is 50 mm, determine the linear
change of angular velocity with respect to time. For an acceleration of the shaft on its external surface,
object whose angular velocity is increasing uniformly: correct to 3 significant figures.

Part Three
change of angular velocity From equation (13.11), a = rα
angular acceleration =
time taken 50
The shaft radius is mm = 25 mm = 0.025 m, and the
2
ω 2 − ω1
i.e. α = (13.9) angular acceleration, α = 5.24 rad/s2,
t
thus the linear acceleration,
The unit of angular acceleration is radians per second
a = rα = 0.025 × 5.24 = 0.131 m/s2
squared (rad/s2). Rewriting equation (13.9) with ω2 as
the subject of the formula gives:
ω2 = ω1 + αt(13.10) Now try the following Practice Exercise

where ω2 = final angular velocity and ω1 = initial Practice Exercise 74â•…Further problems on
angular velocity. linear and angular
From equation (13.6), v = ωr. For motion in a Â�circle acceleration
having a constant radius r, v2 = ω2â•›r and v1 = ω1â•›r,
hence equation (13.7) can be rewritten as: 1. A flywheel rotating with an angular velocity
of 200 rad/s is uniformly accelerated at a rate
ω 2r − ω 1r r (ω 2 − ω 1 )
a = = of 5 rad/s2 for 15 s. Find the final angular
t t velocity of the flywheel both in rad/s and
ω 2 − ω1 revolutions per minute.
But from equation (13.9), =α  [275 rad/s, 8250/π rev/min]
t
Hence a = rα  (13.11)
 174â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles
From equation (13.13), angle turned through,
2. 
A disc accelerates uniformly from 300
revolutions per minute to 600 revolutions ω + ω 
1 2
per minute in 25 s. Determine its angular θ =  t
 2 
acceleration and the linear acceleration of a
point on the rim of the disc, if the radius of  300 × 2π 800 × 2π 
 + 
the disc is 250 mm. 60 60
=   (10) rad
[0.4π rad/s2, 0.1π m/s2]  2 
 

However, there are 2π radians in 1 revolution, hence,

number of revolutions
13.4â•… Further equations of motion
 300 × 2π 800 × 2π 
From equation (13.3), s = vt, and if the linear velocity is  +   10 
changing uniformly from v1 to v2, then s = mean linear 60 60
=   
 2   2π 
velocity × time
 
v + v  1  1100 
i.e. s=  1 2 t (13.12)
 
=   (10)
 2  2  60 

From equation (13.4), θ = ωt, and if the angular 1100

=
velocity is changing uniformly from ω1 to ω2 then 12
θ = mean angular velocity × time
= 91.67 revolutions
ω + ω 
i.e. θ=  1 2 t(13.13)
 Problem 6.â•… The shaft of an electric motor,
 2  initially at rest, accelerates uniformly for 0.4 s at
15 rad/s2. Determine the angle (in radians) turned
Two further equations of linear motion may be derived
through by the shaft in this time.
from equations (13.8) and (13.11):
Part Three

1 2 1 2
s = v1t + at  (13.14) From equation (13.16), θ = ω1â•›t + αt
2 2

and ╅╅╇ v22 = v12 + 2as (13.15) Since the shaft is initially at rest, ω1 = 0 and
1
θ = αt2, the angular acceleration, α = 15 rad/s2 and
Two further equations of angular motion may be 2
time t = 0.4 s.
derived from equations (13.10) and (13.13):
1 2 Hence, angle turned through,
θ = ω1t + αt  (13.16)
2 1
θ = 0 + × 15 × 0.42 = 1.2 rad
2
and â•…â•… ω22 = ω12 + 2αθ  (13.17)
Problem 7.â•… A flywheel accelerates uniformly at
Table 13.1, on page 175, summarises the principal 2.05 rad/s2 until it is rotating at 1500 rev/min. If
equations of linear and angular motion for uniform it completes 5 revolutions during the time it is
changes in velocities and constant accelerations and accelerating, determine its initial angular velocity
also gives the relationships between linear and angular in rad/s, correct to 4 significant figures.
quantities.
Since the final angular velocity is 1500 rev/min,
Problem 5.â•… The speed of a shaft increases uni-
formly from 300 rev/min to 800 rev/min in 10 s. rev 1min 2π rad
Find the number of revolutions made by the shaft ω2 =
 1500 × ×
min 60s 1rev
during the 10 s it is accelerating.
= 50π rad/s
 Linear and angular motionâ•… 175

Table 13.1

s = arc length (m) r = radius of circle (m)

t = time (s) θ = angle (rad)
v = linear velocity (m/s) ω = angular velocity (rad/s)
v1 = initial linear velocity (m/s) ω1 = initial angular velocity (rad/s)
v2 = final linear velocity (m/s) ω2 = final angular velocity (rad/s)
a = linear acceleration (m/s2) α = angular acceleration (rad/s2)
n = speed of revolution (rev/s)

Equation number Linear motion Angular motion

(13.1) s = rθ m
(13.2) 2π rad = 360°
s

θ
t

(13.3) and (13.4) v= ω = rad/s

t
(13.5) ω = 2πn rad/s
(13.6) v = ωr m/s2
v 2 − v1 ω 2 − ω1
(13.7) and (13.9) a= α=
t t
(13.8) and (13.10) v2 = (v1 + at) m/s ω2 = (ω1 + αt) rad/s
(13.11) a = r α m/s2
 v1 + v 2  ω + ω2 

Part Three
(13.12) and (13.13) s=   t θ=  1 t
 2   2 
1 1
2 2

(13.14) and (13.16) s = v1t + at2 θ = ω1 t + αt2

(13.15) and (13.17) v 22 = v12 + 2as ω 22 = ω 12 + 2αθ

2π rad Now try the following Practice Exercise

5 revolutions = 5 rev × = 10π rad
1rev
From equation (13.17), ω 22 = ω 12 + 2αθ Practice Exercise 75â•…Further problems on
equations of motion
i.e. â•…â•…(50π)2 = ω 12 + (2 × 2.05 ×â•›10π)
1. A grinding wheel makes 300 revolu-
from which,╅╇ ω 12 = (50π)2 – (2 × 2.05 ×â•›10π) tions when slowing down uniformly from
= (50π)2 – 41π = 24545 1000 rad/s to 400 rad/s. Find the time for this
reduction in speed. [2.693 s]
i.e. ╅╅╅╇ω 1 = 24545 = 156.7 rad/s
2. Find the angular retardation for the grinding
Thus, the initial angular velocity is 156.7 rad/s, wheel in question 1. [222.8 rad/s2]
correct to 4 significant figures.
 176â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles
The bold letters, ab, indicate a vector quantity and the
3. 
A disc accelerates uniformly from 300 order of the letters indicate that the line of action is
revolutions per minute to 600 revolutions from a to b.
per minute in 25 s. Calculate the number Consider two aircraft A and B flying at a constant
of revolutions the disc makes during this altitude, A travelling due north at 200 m/s and B trav-
accelerating period.  [187.5 revolutions] elling 30° east of north, written N 30° E, at 300 m/s,
4. A pulley is accelerated uniformly from rest as shown in Figure 13.3.
at a rate of 8 rad/s2. After 20 s the accelera-
tion stops and the pulley runs at constant
speed for 2 min, and then the pulley comes o 100 200 300
uniformly to rest after a further 40 s. Calcu- Scale: velocity in mls
late:
(a) the angular velocity after the period of
acceleration 22" b
(b) the deceleration .b
ba
(c) the total number of revolutions made by N
22"
a-
the pulley.
 [(a) 160 rad/s (b) 4 rad/s2 (c) 12000/π rev] w E

s 300 mi.

200 mi.
13.5â•… Relative velocity 30 ·

Quantities used in engineering and science can be

divided into two groups:
o
Scalar quantities have a size or magnitude only
(a) 
and need no other information to specify them. Figure 13.3
Thus 20 centimetres, 5 seconds, 3 litres and
Part Three

4 kilograms are all examples of scalar quantities. Relative to a fixed point 0, 0a represents the velocity
Vector quantities have both a size (or magnitude),
(b)  of A and 0b the velocity of B. The velocity of B
and a direction, called the line of action of the relative to A, that is the velocity at which B seems to
quantity. Typical vector quantities include velocity, be travelling to an observer on A, is given by ab, and
acceleration and force. Thus, a velocity of 30 km/h by measurement is 160 m/s in a direction E 22° N. The
due west, and an acceleration of 7 m/s2 acting velocity of A relative to B, that is, the velocity at which
vertically downwards, are both vector quantities. A seems to be travelling to an observer on B, is given
A vector quantity is represented by a straight line by ba and by measurement is 160 m/s in a direction
lying along the line of action of the quantity, and having W 22° S.
a length that is proportional to the size of the quantity, as
shown in Chapter 5. Thus ab in Figure 13.2 represents Problem 8.â•… Two cars are travelling on horizontal
a velocity of 20 m/s, whose line of action is due west. roads in straight lines, car A at 70 km/h at N 10°Â€E
and car B at 50 km/h at W 60° N. Determine, by
o 5 10 15 20 25 N
drawing a vector diagram to scale, the velocity of
Scale: velocity in m/s
car A relative to car B.
W E
With reference to Figure 13.4(a), oa represents the
s velocity of car A relative to a fixed point o, and ob
represents the velocity of car B relative to a fixed
b a point o. The velocity of car A relative to car B is given
by ba and by measurement is 45 km/h in a direction of
Figure 13.2 E 35° N.
 Linear and angular motionâ•… 177

A vector diagram depicting the motion of the crane

0204060
and load is shown in Figure 13.5. oa represents the
Scale: velocity in km/h
velocity of the crane relative to a fixed point on the
a N
Earth’s surface and ab represents the velocity of
45 kmlh
the load relative to the crane. The velocity of the load
w E
b 35° 70 kmIh relative to the fixed point on the Earth’s surface is ob.
10° By Pythagoras’ theorem (from Chapter 1):
50 kmIh (a)
s
b
60°
o
A
45.14

B
8 5.385 mi. 5 mi.
60° 70
50
40°
60°
8
0
(b) o 2m/s a

Figure 13.4 Figure 13.5

Problem 9.â•… Verify the result obtained in Problem â•…â•…â•… ob2 = oa2 + ab2
8 by calculation. = 4 + 25 = 29
The triangle shown in Figure 13.4(b) is similar to the Hence ob = 29 = 5.385 m/s
vector diagram shown in Figure 13.4(a). Angle BOA is 5
40°. Using the cosine rule (see Chapter 1): Tan θ = = 2.5, hence, θ = tan–1 2.5 = 68.20°
2
 BA2 = 502 + 702 – 2 × 50 × 70 × cos 40° i.e. the velocity of the load relative to a fixed point on

Part Three
from which, BA = 45.14 the Earth’s surface is 5.385 m/s in a direction 68.20°
Using the sine rule: to the motion of the crane.

50 45.14
 = (also from Chapter 1)
sin ∠BAO sin 40° Now try the following Practice Exercises
50sin 40°
from which, sin∠BAO = = 0.7120
45.14 Practice Exercise 76â•…Further problems on
Hence, angle BAO = 45.40° relative velocity
thus, angle ABO = 180° – (40° + 45.40°) 1. A car is moving along a straight horizontal
= 94.60°, road at 79.2 km/h and rain is falling verti-
cally downwards at 26.4 km/h. Find the
and angle θ = 94.60° – 60° = 34.60° velocity of the rain relative to the driver of
Thus, ba is 45.14 km/h in a direction E 34.60° N by the car.
calculation.  [83.5 km/h at 71.6° to the vertical]
2. Calculate the time needed to swim across
Problem 10.â•… A crane is moving in a straight line a river 142 m wide when the swimmer can
with a constant horizontal velocity of 2 m/s. At the swim at 2 km/h in still water and the river is
same time it is lifting a load at a vertical velocity of flowing at 1 km/h. At what angle to the bank
5 m/s. Calculate the velocity of the load relative to should the swimmer swim?
a fixed point on the Earth’s surface.  [4 min 55 s, 60°]