AIR UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

EXPERIMENT NO 1

Lab Title: 2nd Order Active Low Pass & High Pass Filter

Student Name: Reg. No:

Objective:

LAB ASSESSMENT:

Excellent Good Average Satisfactory Unsatisfactory

Attributes
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Ability to Conduct
Experiment
Ability to assimilate the
results
Effective use of lab
equipment and follows the
lab safety rules

Total Marks: Obtained Marks:

LAB REPORT ASSESSMENT:

Excellent Good Average Satisfactory Unsatisfactory
Attributes
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Data presentation

Experimental results

Conclusion

Total Marks: Obtained Marks:

Date: Signature:
EXPERIMENT NO 1

2ND ORDER ACTIVE LOW PASS & HIGH PASS FILTER

Objectives

 To design and construct active low-pass & high-pass Butterworth filters using operational
amplifiers.

Equipment required

 Oscilloscope
 Function Generator
 Trainer
 Operational Amplifier (LM-741)
 Resistors
 Capacitors

FILTERS AND SIGNALS

A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass a specified band of frequencies while attenuating all
signals outside this band. Filter networks may be either active or passive. Passive filter networks
contain only resistors, inductors, and capacitors. Active filters, which are the only type covered
in this text, employ operational amplifiers (op-amps) as well as resistors and capacitors. The
output from most biological measuring systems is generally separable into signal and noise. The
signal is that part of the data in which the observer is interested; the rest may be considered
noise. This noise includes unwanted biological data and no biological interference picked up by
or generated in the measuring equipment. Ideally, we would like to remove it while retaining the
signal, and often this is possible by suitable filtration. If the spectra of signal and noise occupy
completely separate frequency ranges, then a filter may be used to suppress the noise (Figure
1.1). As filters are defined by their frequency-domain effects on signals, it makes sense that the
most useful analytical and graphical descriptions of filters also fall under the frequency domain.
Thus, curves of gain versus frequency and phase versus frequency are commonly used to
illustrate filter characteristics, and most widely used mathematical tools are based on the
frequency domain. The frequency-domain behaviour of a filter is described mathematically in
terms of its transfer function or network function. This is the ratio of the Laplace transforms of
its output and input signals. The voltage transfer function of a filter can therefore be written as

where s is the complex frequency variable. The Laplace transform approach to the filter analysis
allows the designer to work with algebraic equations in the frequency domain. These are
relatively easy to interpret by observation. In contrast, a time-domain approach to filter
mathematics results in complex differential equations that are usually far more difficult to
manipulate and interpret.

The transfer function defines the filter’s response to any arbitrary input signals, but we are most
often concerned with its effect on continuous sine waves, especially the magnitude of the transfer
function to signals at various frequencies. Knowing the transfer function magnitude (or gain) at
each frequency allows us to determine how well the filter can distinguish between signals at
different frequencies.

Figure-1 Using a filter to reduce the effect of an undesired signal.

The transfer function magnitude versus frequency is called the amplitude response or sometimes,
especially in audio applications, the frequency response.

The first type is the low-pass filter (LPF). As might be expected, an LPF passes low-frequency
signals, and rejects signals at frequencies above the filter’s cutoff frequency (Figure 1.2.). The
ideal filter has a rectangular shape, indicating that the boundary between the passband and the
stopband is abrupt and that the rolloff slope is infinitely steep. This type of response is ideal
because it allows us to completely separate signals at different frequencies from one another.
Unfortunately, such an amplitude response curve is not physically realizable. We will have to
settle for the approximation that will still meet our requirements for a given application.

Deciding on the best approximation involves making a compromise between various properties
of the filter’s transfer function. The important properties are the following.

Filter order: The order of a filter has several effects. It is directly related to the number of
components in the filter and, therefore, to its price and the complexity of the design task.
Therefore, higher-order filters are more expensive, take up more space, and are more difficult to
design. The primary advantage of higher-order filters is that they will have steeper rolloff slopes
than similar lower-order filters.
Roll off rate: Usually expressed as the amount of attenuation in dB for a given ratio of
frequencies. The most common units are “dB/decade” or “dB/octave.”

From Figure 1.2, four parameters are of concern:

Amax is the maximum allowable change in gain within the passband. This quantity is also often
called the maximum passband ripple.

Amin is the minimum allowable attenuation (referred to the maximum passband gain) within the
stopband.

f1 is the cutoff frequency or passband limit.

fs is the frequency at which the stopband begins.

These four parameters define the order of the filter.

The inverse of the low-pass is the high-pass filter, which rejects signals below its frequency
(Figure 1.3).
BUTTERWORTH FILTERS
The first, and probably best-known, filter is the Butterworth or maximally flat response. It
exhibits a nearly flat passband. The cut-off frequency is the frequency at which the voltage gains
drops by 3dB from the voltage gain in the pass band. Above this frequency, the input signal is
attenuated at a rate of -12 dB/octave, at a rate that is equivalent to -40 dB/decade for such a 2nd
order filter. A Butterworth low-pass is often used as an anti-aliasing filter in data converter
applications where precise signal levels are required across the entire pass band.
Calculations
A 2nd order transfer function that realizes a LPF characteristic is:

1.1

The transfer function of this filter is given by:

1.2

Equating the coefficients of the denominators in Equations (1.1) and (1.2) gives

1.3

and
 1.4

As a design procedure, let R1=R 2∧C1 =C2 . Equation (2.4) then reduces to

1.5

For Butterworth response, hence, we obtain,

1.6

The gain of the op-amp can be set to give

1.7

Thus, typical values of can be chosen to yield this ratio.

Circuit Diagram

Procedure
 Design and construct a 2nd order active LPF having Butterworth characteristics and a
cutoff frequency of your choice (e.g. 2 kHz).
  With VI adjusted to produce a 2 Vp-p sine wave at 100 Hz, measure and record the peak
value of Vo. Since 100 Hz is within the pass band of this filter, these values can be used
to determine the pass band voltage gain A vo.
 Now increase the frequency of the signal generator until the output voltage V o (and
therefore the voltage gain) equals 3dB less than the peak value. The frequency where this
occurs is the cut off frequency fc of the filter.
 Note the vales in the given table for different values of input frequency.
 Plot the frequency response of the filter clearly mentioning the cut-off frequency.

Circuit Diagram

Procedure

 Design and construct a 2nd order active HPF having Butterworth characteristics and a
cutoff frequency of your choice (e.g. 2 kHz).
 With VI adjusted to produce a 2 Vp-p sine wave at 100 Hz, measure and record the peak
value of Vo.
 Now increase the frequency of the function generator and record the peak value of Vo.
 Note the vales in the given table for different values of input frequency.
 Note the frequency at which the output voltage V O equals 3dB less than the peak value.
This is the cut off frequency fc of the filter.
 Plot the frequency response of the filter clearly mentioning the cut-off frequency.

Observations and Calculations

Input peak-to-peak voltage, Vi = _______ Cut-off frequency, fc = ______
No.of fi Vo V o/ V i V / V i)
20log( o
Obs.

Frequency Responses