CHAPTER ONE

TYPES AND GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The term computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer, namely Keyboard,
Monitor, Mouse, and Printer, including the digital circuitry. Computer hardware is an integral part
embedded in all modern day automobiles, microwave ovens, electrocardiograph machines,
compact disc players, and other devices. The hardware of a computer is not changed frequently,
in contrast with software and data. The present computers are much advanced in terms of
processing speed and have an efficient memory structure. The present lesson aims at providing an
insight into the hardware concepts of a Computer System. Computer can be briefly defined as an
electronic device that accept data through an input device, processing it and give an output through
an output device. Computer Hardware refer to the physical part of the computer that can be seen,
torched and handled.
Nothing epitomizes modern life better than the computer. For better or worse, computers have
infiltrated every aspect of our society. Today computers do much more than simply compute:
supermarket scanners calculate our grocery bill while keeping store inventory; computerized
telephone switching centers play traffic cop to millions of calls and keep lines of communication
untangled; and automatic teller machines (ATM) let us conduct banking transactions from virtually
anywhere in the world. But where did all this technology come from and where is it heading? To
fully understand and appreciate the impact computers have on our lives and promises they hold
for the future, it is important to understand their evolution.
1.1 Computer Generations
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.
Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. But
nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire
computer system.
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in
detail along with their time period and characteristics. Here approximate dates against each
generations have been mentioned which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers
1.1.1 First Generation (1945-1956)
With the onset of the Second World War, governments sought to develop computers to exploit
their potential strategic importance. This increased funding for computer development projects
hastened technical progress. By 1941 German engineer Konrad Zuse had developed a computer,
the Z3, to design airplanes and missiles. The Allied forces, however, made greater strides in
developing powerful computers. In 1943, the British completed a secret code-breaking computer
called Colossus to decode German messages. The Colossus's impact on the development of the
computer industry was rather limited for two important reasons. First, Colossus was not a general-
purpose computer; it was only designed to decode secret messages. Second, the existence of the
machine was kept secret until decades after the war. American efforts produced a broader
achievement. Howard H. Aiken (1900-1973), a Harvard engineer working with IBM, succeeded
in producing an all-electronic calculator by 1944. The purpose of the computer was to create
ballistic charts for the U.S. Navy.
Among the first generation of computer was the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integration and
Computer) which comes with a bulky size that it occupies a whole room. It was made of 18,000
vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 5 million soldered joints. It consumed 160 kilowatts of
electrical power. It was produced by Mark I. John Presper Eckert. Another one was also produced
which is EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) designed by Von Neumann
in 1945 with memory to store both stored program and data. Another computer which was
produced in this generation was UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) built by Reminton
Rand.
The main features of first generation are:
 Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
 Generated lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Need of A.C.
 Non-portable
 Consumed lot of electricity
Some computers of this generation were:
 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM-701
 IBM-650
Figure 1.1: ENIAC Computer

Figure 1.2: EDVAC Computer

1.1.2 Second Generation (1956 - 1963)

By 1948, the invention of the transistor greatly changed the computer's development. The transistor
replaced the large, cumbersome vacuum tube in televisions, radios and computers. As a result, the
size of electronic machinery has been shrinking ever since. The transistor was at work in the
computer by 1956. Coupled with early advances in magnetic-core memory, transistors led to
second generation computers that were smaller, faster, more reliable and more energy-efficient
than their predecessors. The first large-scale machines to take advantage of this transistor
technology were early supercomputers, Stretch by IBM and LARC by Sperry-Rand. Throughout
the early 1960's, there were a number of commercially successful second generation computers
used in business, universities, and government from companies such as Burroughs, Control Data,
Honeywell, IBM, Sperry-Rand, and others. These second generation computers were also of solid
state design, and contained transistors in place of vacuum tubes. They also contained all the
components we associate with the modern day computer: printers, tape storage, disk storage,
memory, operating systems, and stored programs. One important example was the IBM 1401,
which was universally accepted throughout industry, and is considered by many to be the Model
T of the computer industry. By 1965, most large business routinely processed financial information
using second generation computers.
It was the stored program and programming language that gave computers the flexibility to finally
be cost effective and productive for business use. The stored program concept meant that
instructions to run a computer for a specific function (known as a program) were held inside the
computer's memory, and could quickly be replaced by a different set of instructions for a different
function. A computer could print customer invoices and minutes later design products or calculate
paychecks. More sophisticated high-level languages such as COBOL (Common Business-
Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translator) came into common use during this time,
and have expanded to the current day. These languages replaced cryptic binary machine code with
words, sentences, and mathematical formulas, making it much easier to program a computer. New
types of careers (programmer, analyst, and computer systems expert) and the entire software
industry began with second generation computers.

Figure 1.3: IBM 1620

The main features of second generation are:
 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 A.C. needed
 Supported machine and assembly languages
Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108
1.1.3 Third Generation (1964 - 1971)
Though transistors were clearly an improvement over the vacuum tube, they still generated a great
deal of heat, which damaged the computer's sensitive internal parts. The quartz rock eliminated
this problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, developed the integrated circuit (IC)
in 1958. The IC combined three electronic components onto a small silicon disc, which was made
from quartz. Scientists later managed to fit even more components on a single chip, called a
semiconductor. As a result, computers became ever smaller as more components were squeezed
onto the chip. Another third-generation development included the use of an operating system that
allowed machines to run many different programs at once with a central program that monitored
and coordinated the computer's memory.
The main features of third generation are:
 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Still costly
 A.C needed
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language
Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP(Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316
1.1.4 Fourth Generation (1971 - Present)
After the integrated circuits, the only place to go was down - in size, that is. Large scale integration
(LSI) could fit hundreds of components onto one chip. By the 1980's, very large scale integration
(VLSI) squeezed hundreds of thousands of components onto a chip. Ultra-large scale integration
(ULSI) increased that number into the millions. The ability to fit so much onto an area about half
the size of a U.S. dime helped diminish the size and price of computers. It also increased their
power, efficiency and reliability. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, took the integrated
circuit one step further by locating all the components of a computer (central processing unit,
memory, and input and output controls) on a minuscule chip. Whereas previously the integrated
circuit had had to be manufactured to fit a special purpose, now one microprocessor could be
manufactured and then programmed to meet any number of demands. Soon everyday household
items such as microwave ovens, television sets and automobiles with electronic fuel injection
incorporated microprocessors.

Figure 1.4: A DEC Computer

The main features of fourth generation are:
 VLSI technology used
 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PC's
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No A.C. needed
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available
Some computers of this generation were:
 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
  PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
1.1.5 Fifth Generation - 1980-Present
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor
chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on parallel processing
hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science,
which interprets means and method of making computers think like human beings. All the high-
level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation.
AI includes:
 Robotics
 Neural networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.
 Natural language understanding and generation.

The main features of fifth generation are:

 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
  Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Some computer types of this generation are:
 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook
 ChromeBook
1.2 Types of Computers
Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.
SN Type Specifications

1. PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful

Computer) microprocessor.

2. WorkStation It is also a single user computer system which is similar to personal

computer but have more powerful microprocessor.

3. Mini Computer It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of supporting

hundreds of users simultaneously.

4. Main Frame It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of supporting

hundreds of users simultaneously. Software technology is different
from minicomputer.

5. Supercomputer It is an extremely fast computer which can execute hundreds of

millions of instructions per second.

1.2.1 PC (Personal Computer)

A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user.
PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU
on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop
publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most
popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally
linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days High-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end
workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett
Figure 1.4: A Personal Computer

1.2.2 Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
software development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of RAM,
inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage
device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes
without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, Workstations
are also single user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a local-area
network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

Figure 1.5: A Workstation

1.2.3 Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Figure 1.6: A Minicomputer

1.2.4 Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or
even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and
supports many simultaneous execution of programs.

Figure 1.6: A Mainframe

1.2.5 Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic
design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

Figure 1.7: A Supercomputer

 CHAPTER TWO
2.1 COMPONENTS AND BASIC OPERATION OF COMPUTER
All types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic
operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.
Table 2.1: Five basic operation of Computer
Sn Operation Description
1. Take Input The process of entering data and
instructions into the computer
system.
2. Store Data Saving data and instructions so that
they are available for processing as
and when required.
3. Processing Data Performing arithmetic, and logical
operations on data in order to convert
them into useful information.
4. Output Information The process of producing useful
information or results for the user,
such as a printed report or visual
display.
5. Control the Directs the manner and sequence in
workflow which all of the above operations are
performed.

Figure 2.1: Block Diagram of Computer Operation

 a. Input Unit: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system.
You should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which
takes inputs as raw data and performs some processing giving out processed data.
Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for
processing.
b. Output Unit: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful
information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be
kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form.
Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.
c. CPU (Central Processing Unit): CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU
performs all types of data processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results and
instructions (program).It controls the operation of all parts of computer. CPU itself has
following three components:

i. ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

ii. Storage or Memory Unit
iii. Control Unit

d. Storage or Memory Unit: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is
known as storage. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It
is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data
has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the
storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the
computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for storing
data and instructions.

Functions of memory unit are:

i. It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
ii. It stores intermediate results of processing.
iii. It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
iv. All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.

e. Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU): After you enter data through the input device it is stored
in the primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed
by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU
from storage unit when required. After processing the output is returned back to storage
unit for further processing or getting stored.

This unit consists of two subsections namely

i. Arithmetic section
ii. Logic Section
 i. Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above
operations.

ii. Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching
and merging of data.

f. Control Unit (CU): The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations
are performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed
by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.
The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor which
make sure the operations are done in proper fashion. The control unit determines the
sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed. Things like
processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the instructions and
issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch
board operator when several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it
coordinates the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and
output. Therefore it is the manager of all operations mentioned in the previous section.

Functions of this unit are:

i. It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
ii. It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
iii. It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
iv. It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
v. It does not process or store data.

2.2 Input Device

The foremost task of a computer is to accept data. An input device is used to accomplish this task.
An input device is used to enter the data and instructions into the computer. Advancement in the
computer technology has resulted in a variety of input devices being available in the market.
Keyboard and mouse are the most commonly used input devices.
Keyboard: Keyboard is the most popular input device that allows users to type alphabets, numbers,
and operators, and also to control the cursor on the screen. A simple keyboard layout is given in
figure 4.
Mouse: Mouse is a pointing device that allows user to point to a specific position on the screen.
It has two or three buttons on top for selecting/executing different operations. Pressing buttons of
mouse is known as clicking of mouse. The mouse is placed on flat surface and moved around to
move its controlling arrow on screen. The arrow showing the position of mouse on screen is
known as mouse pointer. Left button of mouse is used execute the operation associated with it.
Right button/Middle buttons are associated with special operations in different situations. Some
of the other Input Devices are enlisted in table 1.
Table 1: various input devices
Device Identification Usage
Joy stick It is a device used to control cursor
on screen. Normally it is used in
Games and specially designed
simulation software.
Light Pen It is a device used for drawing
pictures and for directly controlling
screen operations
Microphone It is a device used to accept audio
inputs from the user

Scanner It is a device used to capture digital

images of printed documents,
graphics or other printed media

Screen Torch It is a display device, which is

touch-sensitive and allows user to
interact with the computer system
by touching an area on the screen.
 Bar code Reader Bar Code Reader is a device used
for reading bar coded data (data in
form of light and dark lines). Bar
coded data is generally used in
labelling goods, numbering the
books etc. It may be a hand held
scanner or may be embedded in a
stationary scanner. Bar Code
Reader scans a bar code image,
converts it into an alphanumeric
value which is then fed to the
computer to which bar code reader
is connected..
Web Camera It is an easy to connect low
resolution digital camera normally
employed for transfer of images on
the web-based conferencing.
Digital Camera It is a high-resolution camera,
which captures images and stores
them in digital format. It has
provision to connect to the
computer using special computer
communication cables (such as
USB cables).

2.3 Output Devices

It is a device used to provide the processed data from the computer to the user. Monitor
(VDU/Screen) and printer are the most commonly used output devices. The usage of some of the
commonly used output devices is shown in table 2.
Table 2: output devices
Device Identification Usage
Monitor A Monitor is an output device, very
similar to the television screen. It
displays the information as it is typed
and also displays the processed result
or the output. It is
available in many forms cathode
ray picture tube based display,
liquid crystal based display(LCD),
plasma panel display, and touch panel
display.
 Printer It is an output device to produce paper
copy (hard copy) for a document,
pictures etc. The job of
a printer is to put on paper what is seen
on the monitor. Printers vary
mainly in cost, quality, speed and
noise levels. Eg: Dot Matrix Printer,
Inkjet / Deskjet / Bubblejet Printer,
Laser Printer
Plotter Plotters are expensive output devices
specially designed to produce outputs
of diagrams, illustrations and other
graphics.

2.3.1 Monitors and their Characteristics

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
a. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
b. Flat- Panel Display

Most people use computer monitors daily at work and at home. And while these come in a
variety of shapes, designs, and colours, they can also be broadly categorized into three types.

2.3.1.1 CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitors

These monitors employ CRT technology, which was used most commonly in the manufacturing
of television screens. With these monitors, a stream of intense high energy electrons is used to
form images on a fluorescent screen. A cathode ray tube is basically a vacuum tube containing an
electron gun at one end and a fluorescent screen at another end. While CRT monitors can still be
found in some organizations, many offices have stopped using them largely because they are
heavy, bulky, and costly to replace should they break. It is suitable for people who cannot avoid
the new technology of monitor because it is cheaper. The following are some disadvantages of
CRT:

1. Large in Size
2. High power consumption
2.3.1.2 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitors

The LCD monitor incorporates one of the most advanced technologies available today. Typically,
it consists of a layer of color or monochrome pixels arranged schematically between a couple of
transparent electrodes and two polarizing filters. Optical effect is made possible by polarizing the
light in varied amounts and making it pass through the liquid crystal layer. The two types of LCD
technology available are the active matrix of TFT and a passive matrix technology. TFT generates
better picture quality and is more secure and reliable. Passive matrix, on the other hand, has a slow
response time and is slowly becoming outdated.

The advantages of LCD monitors include:

1. Compact size which makes them lightweight.
2. They also don’t consume much electricity as CRT monitors, and
3. They can be run off of batteries which makes them ideal for laptops.

Images transmitted by these monitors don’t get geometrically distorted and have little flicker.
However, this type of monitor does have disadvantages, such as:

1. Its relatively high price,

2. An image quality which is not constant when viewed from different angles, and a monitor
resolution that is not always constant, meaning any alterations can result in reduced
performance.

2.3.1.2 LED (Light-Emitting Diodes) Monitors

LED monitors are the latest types of monitors on the market today. These are flat panel, or slightly
curved displays which make use of light-emitting diodes for back-lighting, instead of cold cathode
fluorescent (CCFL) back-lighting used in LCDs. LED monitors are said to use much lesser power
than CRT and LCD and are considered far more environmentally friendly.
The advantages of LED monitors are:
1. They produce images with higher contrast,
2. They have less negative environmental impact when disposed,
3. They are more durable than CRT or LCD monitors, and features a very thin design.
4. They also don’t produce much heat while running.
The only downside is that they can be more expensive, especially for the high-end monitors like
the new curved displays that are being released.
2.4 Screen Resolution
It refers to the number of pixel that can be displayed. A pixel (a Portmanteau word from Picture
element) is one of the many tiny dots that make up the representation of a picture in a computer’s
memory. Usually the dots are so small and so numerous that when display on paper or displayed
on computer monitor, they appear to merge into a smooth image. The colour and intensity of each
dots is chosen individually by the computer to represent a small area of the picture. For example,
a resolution of 640x640 indicate that the screen can be covered by 640 dots wide and 640 dots
high. Resolution determines the quality of graphic display on the screen and also on the printed
pages.
2.4.1 Setting Display Properties
The Display Properties dialog box allows the user to customize his/her desktop by changing the
screen saver, colors, font sizes and screen resolution. Open the Display Properties dialog box by
choosing the Display option in the Control Panel or by right clicking anywhere on the desktop
and choosing Properties option from the pop-up menu. The Display Properties dialog box is
displayed. The Display Properties dialog box has five tabs explained below:
 Themes tab - To apply a predefined theme (collection of desktop backgrounds, sounds,
icons etc) from an available list.
 Desktop tab - To change the desktop background image.
 Screen Saver tab - To change the screen saver.
 Appearance tab - To change the appearance of various windows, dialog boxes and icons.
 Settings tab - To set the screen resolution and Color quality properties.

2.5 Printers
Printers can be grouped into two namely: Impact and Non-impact printer
1. Impact Printers - These printers have a mechanism that touches the paper in order to
create an image. The Dot Matrix Printer is an example of this type.

2. Non-impact Printers - These printers do not touch the paper when creating an image. The
inkjet and laser printers are examples of this type.
2.5.1 Dot Matrix Printer
Printers in this category print the characters / images using dots through inked ribbon. These
printers are very economic and require very less maintenance cost. The print quality of the dot
matrix printer is decided by the quantity of pins it has. The number of the pins can vary from
nine to twenty four, depending on the kind of dot matrix printer. When compared to the other
kind of printers, like the laser printers or the ink jet printer, the dot matrix printer is much more
expensive. The dot matrix printer has a tendency to make a lot of noise when compared to the
other kinds of printers. This is why the dot matrix printer is not very popular among customers.
Quality of print in this category is not very high but is highly suitable for printing situations
requiring multiple copies. These printers can print through hammering pattern of dots on the
printing ribbon and can thus print multiple copies of document if multiple papers separated by

carbon papers are inserted in it. Note that this feature is not available with any other category of
printers.

Figure 4: Dot Matrix Printer and output performance

2.5.2 Inkjet/Deskjet/Bubblejet Printer
Printers in this category are most popular. These printers are very low priced with high
running/maintenance cost. These printers work on liquid ink technology and print the image
using circuit-controlled jet of ink. An inkjet sprays the ink onto the paper in tiny droplets to form
text and graphics. Printing speed of these printers is not very high compared to Laser Printers.
These printers are suitable for people having less printing jobs with a desirable print quality.
These printers are available in 'Coloured' and 'Black & White' options. Different companies have
branded their products using the same technology with different names e.g.
 Hewlett Packard (hp) manufactures DeskJet Printers
 Epson manufactures Inkjet Printers
 Canon manufactures Bubble Jet Printers
2.5.3 Laser Printer
These printers use a technique, which is a combination of laser and Xerox technology. The
technology involves dry powder based ink, which is adhered to a drum through magnetic force,
and when a paper is passed through the drum it releases ink on that paper. These are the fastest
available printers in the category and are most suitable for uses involving high-speed quality
prints.
Setting Printer Properties
To set printer properties, right click on the printer name and choose the Properties option.
 CHAPTER THREE
MAINBOARD/PROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
3.0 What is Mainboard?
Mainboard otherwise known as motherboard or systemboard, can be described as the main
circuit board that accommodates the C.P.U and all circuitries (i.e floppy disk controller, hard
disk controller, serial port, memory ports, expansion slots, ON-board input/output ports, fax-
modern ports) e.t.c

A motherboard provides the electrical connections by which the other components of the system
communicate. Unlike a backplane, it also contains the central processing unit and hosts other
subsystems and devices.

A typical desktop computer has its microprocessor, main memory, and other essential components
connected to the motherboard. Other components such as external storage, controllers for video
display and sound, and peripheral devices may be attached to the motherboard as plug-in cards or
via cables, in modern computers it is increasingly common to integrate some of these peripherals
into the motherboard itself.

An important component of a motherboard is the microprocessor's supporting chipset, which

provides the supporting interfaces between the CPU and the various buses and external
components. This chipset determines, to an extent, the features and capabilities of the motherboard.

Modern motherboards include:

 Sockets (or slots) in which one or more microprocessors may be installed. In the case of
CPUs in ball grid array packages, such as the VIA C3, the CPU is directly soldered to the
motherboard.
 Slots into which the system's main memory is to be installed (typically in the form of
DIMM modules containing DRAM chips)
 A chipset which forms an interface between the CPU's front-side bus, main memory, and
peripheral buses
 Non-volatile memory chips (usually Flash ROM in modern motherboards) containing the
system's firmware or BIOS
 A clock generator which produces the system clock signal to synchronize the various
components.

 Slots for expansion cards (the interface to the system via the buses supported by the chipset)
 Power connectors, which receive electrical power from the computer power supply and
distribute it to the CPU, chipset, main memory, and expansion cards. As of 2007, some
graphics cards (e.g. GeForce 8 and Radeon R600) require more power than the
motherboard can provide, and thus dedicated connectors have been introduced to attach
them directly to the power supply.
  Connectors for hard drives, typically SATA only. Disk drives also connect to the power
supply.

Additionally, nearly all motherboards include logic and connectors to support commonly used
input devices, such as PS/2 connectors for a mouse and keyboard. Early personal computers such
as the Apple II or IBM PC included only this minimal peripheral support on the motherboard.
Occasionally video interface hardware was also integrated into the motherboard; for example, on
the Apple II and rarely on IBM-compatible computers such as the IBM PC Jr. Additional
peripherals such as disk controllers and serial ports were provided as expansion cards.

Given the high thermal design power of high-speed computer CPUs and components, modern
motherboards nearly always include heat sinks and mounting points for fans to dissipate excess
heat.

Motherboards are produced in a variety of sizes and shapes called computer form factor, some of
which are specific to individual computer manufacturers. However, the motherboards used in
IBM-compatible systems are designed to fit various case sizes. As of 2007, most desktop computer
motherboards use the ATX standard form factor — even those found in Macintosh and Sun
computers, which have not been built from commodity components. A case's motherboard and
PSU form factor must all match, though some smaller form factor motherboards of the same family
will fit larger cases. For example, an ATX case will usually accommodate a microATX
motherboard.

Laptop computers generally use highly integrated, miniaturized and customized motherboards.
This is one of the reasons that laptop computers are difficult to upgrade and expensive to repair.
Often the failure of one laptop component requires the replacement of the entire motherboard,
which is usually more expensive than a desktop motherboard due to the large number of integrated
components.

A CPU socket (central processing unit) or slot is an electrical component that attaches to a Printed
Circuit Board (PCB) and is designed to house a CPU (also called a microprocessor). It is a special
type of integrated circuit socket designed for very high pin counts. A CPU socket provides many
functions, including a physical structure to support the CPU, support for a heat sink, facilitating
replacement (as well as reducing cost), and most importantly, forming an electrical interface both
with the CPU and the PCB. CPU sockets on the motherboard can most often be found in most
desktop and server computers (laptops typically use surface mount CPUs), particularly those based
on the Intel x86 architecture. A CPU socket type and motherboard chipset must support the CPU
series and speed.
Integrated peripherals

Block diagram of a modern motherboard, which supports many on-board peripheral functions as well as
several expansion slots

With the steadily declining costs and size of integrated circuits, it is now possible to include
support for many peripherals on the motherboard. By combining many functions on one PCB, the
physical size and total cost of the system may be reduced; highly integrated motherboards are thus
especially popular in small form factor and budget computers.

 Disk controllers for a floppy disk drive, up to 2 PATA drives, and up to 6 SATA drives (including
RAID 0/1 support)
 integrated graphics controller supporting 2D and 3D graphics, with VGA and TV output
 integrated sound card supporting 8-channel (7.1) audio and S/PDIF output
 Fast Ethernet network controller for 10/100 Mbit networking
 USB 2.0 controller supporting up to 12 USB ports
 IrDA controller for infrared data communication (e.g. with an IrDA-enabled cellular phone or
printer)
 Temperature, voltage, and fan-speed sensors that allow software to monitor the health of computer
components.

A typical motherboard will have a different number of connections depending on its standard and
form factor.
A standard, modern ATX motherboard will typically have two or three PCI-Express 16x
connection for a graphics card, one or two legacy PCI slots for various expansion cards, and one
or two PCI-E 1x (which has superseded PCI). A standard EATX motherboard will have two to
four PCI-E 16x connection for graphics cards, and a varying number of PCI and PCI-E 1x slots. It
can sometimes also have a PCI-E 4x slot (will vary between brands and models).

Some motherboards have two or more PCI-E 16x slots, to allow more than 2 monitors without
special hardware, or use a special graphics technology called SLI (for Nvidia) and Crossfire (for
AMD). These allow 2 to 4 graphics cards to be linked together, to allow better performance in
intensive graphical computing tasks, such as gaming, video editing, etc.

Motherboards are generally air cooled with heat sinks often mounted on larger chips, such as the
Northbridge, in modern motherboards.[5] Insufficient or improper cooling can cause damage to the
internal components of the computer, or cause it to crash. Passive cooling, or a single fan mounted
on the power supply, was sufficient for many desktop computer CPU's until the late 1990s; since
then, most have required CPU fans mounted on their heat sinks, due to rising clock speeds and
power consumption. Most motherboards have connectors for additional case fans and integrated
temperature sensors to detect motherboard and CPU temperatures and controllable fan connectors
which the BIOS or operating system can use to regulate fan speed.[6] Alternatively computers can
use a water cooling system instead of many fans.

Some small form factor computers and home theater PCs designed for quiet and energy-efficient
operation boast fan-less designs. This typically requires the use of a low-power CPU, as well as
careful layout of the motherboard and other components to allow for heat sink placement.

A 2003 study found that some spurious computer crashes and general reliability issues, ranging
from screen image distortions to I/O read/write errors, can be attributed not to software or
peripheral hardware but to aging capacitors on PC motherboards. Ultimately this was shown to be
the result of a faulty electrolyte formulation, an issue termed capacitor plague.

Motherboards use electrolytic capacitors to filter the DC power distributed around the board. These
capacitors age at a temperature-dependent rate, as their water based electrolytes slowly evaporate.
This can lead to loss of capacitance and subsequent motherboard malfunctions due to voltage
instabilities. While most capacitors are rated for 2000 hours of operation at 105 °C (221 °F),[9] their
expected design life roughly doubles for every 10 °C (50 °F) below this. At 45 °C (113 °F) a
lifetime of 15 years can be expected. This appears reasonable for a computer motherboard.
However, many manufacturers deliver substandard capacitors,[10] which significantly reduce life
expectancy. Inadequate case cooling and elevated temperatures easily exacerbate this problem. It
is possible, but time-consuming, to find and replace failed capacitors on personal computer
motherboards.
High rates of motherboard failures in China and India appear to be due to "sulfurous air pollution
produced by coal that's burned to generate electricity. Air pollution corrodes the circuitry,
according to Intel researchers.

Bootstrapping using the Basic input output system

Motherboards contain some non-volatile memory to initialize the system and load some startup
software, usually an operating system, from some external peripheral device. Microcomputers
such as the Apple II and IBM PC used ROM chips mounted in sockets on the motherboard. At
power-up, the central processor would load its program counter with the address of the boot ROM
and start executing instructions from the ROM. These instructions initialized and tested the system
hardware, displayed system information on the screen, performed RAM checks, and then loaded
an initial program from an external or peripheral device. If none was available, then the computer
would perform tasks from other memory stores or display an error message, depending on the
model and design of the computer and the ROM version. For example, both the Apple II and the
original IBM PC had Microsoft Cassette BASIC in ROM and would start that if no program could
be loaded from disk.

Most modern motherboard designs use a BIOS, stored in an EEPROM chip soldered to or socketed
on the motherboard, to booting an operating system. Non-operating system boot programs are still
supported on modern IBM PC-descended machines, but nowadays it is assumed that the boot
program will be a complex operating system such as MS Windows NT or Linux. When power is
first supplied to the motherboard, the BIOS firmware tests and configures memory, circuitry, and
peripherals. This Power-On Self-Test (POST) may include testing some of the following things:

 Video adapter
 Cards inserted into slots, such as conventional PCI
 Floppy drive
 Temperatures, voltages, and fan speeds for hardware monitoring
 CMOS used to store BIOS setup configuration
 Keyboard and Mouse
 Network controller
 Optical drives: CD-ROM or DVD-ROM
 SCSI hard drive
 IDE, EIDE, or Serial ATA Hard disk drive
 Security devices, such as a fingerprint reader or the state of a latching switch to detect
intrusion
 USB devices, such as a memory storage device

On recent motherboards, the BIOS may also patch the central processor microcode if the BIOS
detects that the installed CPU is one for which errata have been published.

A microprocessor is a computer processor that incorporates the functions of a computer's central

processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC) or at most a few integrated circuits. The
microprocessor is a multipurpose, programmable device that accepts digital data as input,
processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides results as output.
Microprocessors contain both combinational logic and sequential digital logic. Microprocessors
operate on numbers and symbols represented in the binary numeral system.

The integration of a whole CPU onto a single chip or on a few chips greatly reduced the cost of
processing power. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated
processes resulting in a low per unit cost. Single-chip processors increase reliability as there are
many fewer electrical connections to fail. As microprocessor designs get faster, the cost of
manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size)
generally stays the same.

Before microprocessors, small computers had been implemented using racks of circuit boards with
many medium- and small-scale integrated circuits. Microprocessors integrated this into one or a
few large-scale ICs. Continued increases in microprocessor capacity have since rendered other
forms of computers almost completely obsolete (see history of computing hardware), with one or
more microprocessors used in everything from the smallest embedded systems and handheld
devices to the largest

3.1 Classification of Motherboard

Mainboard can be classified as follows:
i. Classification by Trade mark:
The trade mark or name often brought about classification of mainboard i.e Intel, Pentium,
MMX, and Celeron are registered trade mark of Intel cooperation, also AMI for American
megatrends inc, AMD for advance micro-device, cyrix for cyrix cooperation. Hence such name
are used to classified mainboard with respect to manufacturers.
ii. Classification by age of Technology:
This refers to distinct technological growth in mainboard/system architecture i.e Pentium I,
Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV e.t.c. There are changes in features of each model with
respect to technological development.
iii. Classification by C.P.U Clock Frequency:
This is refer to as the speed of the central processing unit which depend on the performance of
the Arithmetic and logic unit (A.L.U), register section (programme counter register, instruction
register, flag register, accumulator and control/timing of the C.P.U of a particular mainboard).
Examples;
1. 486, 486dx, 486dx,33, 486dx 2-66, 486dx 4-100.
 2. Intel Pentium I: 60MHz, 75, 90, 100, 120, 133, 150, 166, 200, 233.
3. Intel Pentium II: (Slot I) 233, 266, 300, 400, 450.
4. Intel Pentium III: 450, 500, 533, 550, 600, 633, 650, 667, 700, 733, 750, 800, 833, 850,
866, 900, 933, 950, 1000, 1.13GHz.
5. Pentium IVn1.14GHz, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.2 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3.0.
6. Celeron(Slot I) 266, 300, 333, 366, 400
(Socket 370):, 266, 300, 333, 366, 400, 500, 566, 600, to 1.2
NOTE:
M = Mega = 1,000,000
G = Giga = 1,000,000,000
Hz = Hezt = fundamental unit of computer memory
measurement.
For instance: 600 MHz = 600,000,000 Hz (frequency/second)
iv. CLASSIFICATION BY CHIPSET USED FOR BOARD ARCHITECTURE:
The chipset used to build a mainboard determine its identification i.e TX PRO I, TX PRO
IID, EXEL 2000, SIS 630e, VIA 694X, 686B, AGP set, PCI local bus Intel chipset (82810e2,
82810e) e.t.c
Chipset is a collection of micro process connected to each other through a series of wire (also
called buses). Various computer component communicate with each other through the
chipset.
3.2 MAINBOARD INSTALLATION PROCEDURE:
 Open the cover of a desired case are have corresponding features with the mainboard, for
example Pentium III case for Pentium III mainboard.

 Place the main board on the mounting brackets provided on the case correspond to the
holes in the mainboard.

 Drive screws via the holes provision on the mainboard into the mounting bracket.

 Ensure that the ports (keyboard ports, serial, parallel ports) on the mainboard are aligned
with the space provided on the case.
Figure: A Typical Mainboard or Motherboard

2.3 MICROPROCESSOR (C.P.U) INSTALLATION

Microprocessor or C.P.U depends on the kind of provided by the mainboard architectural design
for the C.P.U with corresponding C.P.U or processor.

There are various kind of Socket /C.P.U

a) Socket 7: This is a kind of socket/C.P.U for Pentium I and other IBM mainboard,
including bus frequencies of 60/66/75MHz.
Socket 7 installation procedure
 Pull the locking lever out from the socket to the upright position.
 Locate pin 1 on the same size of the locking lever (look for white dot, or cut in the C.P.U
 edge)
  Insert the processor in the socket, swing down and hook
 Place heat sink/cooling fan.
b) Socket 370:
This is a kind socket/C.P.U provided for Pentium coppermine processor and its likes.
It is similar to socket 7 but the socket/C.P.U is small compare to socket 7, installation
procedure is also similar to that of socket 7
c) Single edge contact slots (SEC)
This is a kind of C.P.U/Slot provided with a retention mechanism, the C.P.U have a
rectangular shape. They are available in Pentium II & III.
Installation procedure:
 Mount the heat sink/cooling fan on the C.P.U.
 Insert the C.P.U into the retention clip.
 Lock the latches to secure the C.P.U.
d) Althon Socket A
This is a kind used in nVidia chipset, VIA chipset, SIS chipset.
e) Socket 478
This is for Pentium 4 such as intel chipset, SIS, VIA.
 CHAPTER FOUR
3.0 PC PORTS AND CONNECTORS
PC Ports
In a computer there are various connectors and ports, which help in establishing a
communication path between the CPU and the various above mentioned Storage devices. Before
learning about the various available connectors, it is essential to be familiar with the following
terms:
1. Cable is a wire
2. Socket is the female side of a connector.
3. Pin is the male side of a connector.
4. Port is generally a place for physically connecting to some other device usually with a socket.

Parallel Port
Parallel Port Parallel ports can be used to connect a host of popular computer peripherals like:
• Printers • Scanners • CD burners • External hard drives • Iomega Zip removable drives
• Network adapters • Tape backup drives
Parallel ports were originally developed by IBM as a way to connect a printer to PC. Parallel
ports are also known as LPT ports. When a PC sends data to a printer or any other device using a
parallel port, it sends 8 bits of data (1 byte) at a time. These 8 bits are transmitted parallel to each
other all at once. The standard parallel port is capable of sending 50 to 100 kilobytes of data per
second. The original specification for parallel ports was unidirectional, meaning that data only
traveled in one direction for each pin. With the introduction of the PS/2 in 1987, IBM offered a
new bi-directional parallel port design. This mode is commonly known as Standard Parallel Port
(SPP) and has completely replaced the original design. Bi-directional communication allows
each device to receive data as well as transmit it.
Serial Port
Serial ports, also called communication (COM) ports, support sequential data transmission and are
bi-directional. As explained above, bi-directional communication allows each device to receive
data as well as transmit it. The name "serial" comes from the fact that a serial port "serializes" data.
That is, it takes a byte of data and transmits the 8 bits in the byte one at a time serially one after
the other. The main advantage is that a serial port needs only one wire to transmit the 8 bits (while
a parallel port needs 8 because all 8 bits are sent in one go). The disadvantage is that it takes 8
times longer to transmit the data than it would if there were 8 wires. Serial ports lower cable costs
and make cables smaller. A serial port is commonly used to connect external modems, scanners or
the older computer mouse to the computer. It comes in two versions, 9-pin and 25-pin. 25-pin
COM connector is the older version while the 9-pin connector is the current standard. Data travels
over a serial port at 115 Kb per second. The following is a 9-pin serial port.

USB (Universal Serial Bus) Port

In the past, connecting devices to computers had been a real headache. Printers connected to
parallel printer ports, and most computers only came with one. Things like Zip drives, which need
a high-speed connection into the computer, would use the parallel port as well, often with limited
success and not much speed. The earlier version of Serial Port (COM Port) had 9 pins in it.
Modems used the serial port, but so did some printers and a variety of odd things like Palm Pilots
and digital cameras. Most computers have at most two serial ports, and they are very slow in most
cases. Devices that needed faster connections came with their own cards, which had to fit in a card
slot inside the computer's case. Unfortunately, the number of card slots is limited and a Ph.D. was
needed to install the software for some of the cards. USB, introduced in 1997 is a plug and play
peripheral connection, which was invented to solve all these headaches. It is used to connect
various devices, for example, digital joystick, a scanner, digital speakers, digital cameras, or a PC
telephone etc. to the computer. USB is generally a two-and-a half-inch long port on the back of
computers or built into a hatch on the front of a computer. The Universal Serial Bus provides a
single, standardized, easy-to-use way to connect up to 127 devices to a computer. Just about every
peripheral made now comes in a USB version. A sample list of USB devices that you can buy
today includes:
• Printer • Scanner • Mic • Joystick • Flight yoke • Digital camera • WebCam • Scientific data
acquisition device • Modem • Speaker • Telephone • Video phone • Storage device such as Zip
drive • Network connection
Connecting a USB device to a computer is as simple as finding the USB connector on the back of
the machine and plugging the USB connector into it. If it is a new device, the operating system
auto-detects it and asks for the driver disk. If the device has already been installed, the computer
activates it and starts talking to it. USB devices can be connected and disconnected at any time.
Many USB devices come with their own built-in cable, and the cable has an "A" connection on
it. If not, then the device has a socket on it that accepts a USB "B" connector.

Figure: A Typical ‘A’ Connector

Figure: A Typical ‘B’ Connector
The USB standard uses "A" and "B" connectors to avoid confusion: "A" connectors connect
towards the computer while the "B" connectors connect to individual devices. By using different
connectors it is impossible to ever get confused. Connect any USB cable's "B" connector into a
device, and it is sure to work. The Universal Serial Bus is the hottest product in the computer
market because of the following features:
 The computer acts as the host.
 Up to 127 devices can connect to the host, either directly or by way of USB hubs.
 Individual USB cables can run as long as 5 meters; with hubs, devices can be up to 30
meters (six cables' worth) away from the host.
 With USB 2, the bus has a maximum data rate of 480 megabits per second.
 A USB cable has two wires for power (+5 volts and ground) and a twisted pair of wires to
carry the data. A typical "B" connector
 On the power wires, the computer can supply up to 500 milliamps of power at 5 volts.
 Low-power devices (such as mice) can draw their power directly from the bus. High-power
devices (such as printers) have their own power supplies and draw minimal power from
the bus. Hubs can have their own power supplies to provide power to devices connected to
the hub.
 USB devices are hot-swappable, meaning you can plug them into the bus and unplug them
any time.
 Many USB devices can be put to sleep by the host computer when the computer enters a
power-saving mode.
Summary

 USB 1.0 supports 1.5Mbps

USB 1.1 supports 12Mbps
 USB 2.0 supports up to 480Mbps
USB 3.0 supports up to 4.8Gbps

Firewire Port
This port was originally created by Apple and standardized in 1995 as the specification IEEE
1394 High Performance Serial Bus and is very similar to Universal Serial Bus (USB). The most
important features of Firewire port are:
 Fast transfer of data - the latest version achieves speeds up to 800 Mbps. At some time in
the future, that number is expected to jump to an unbelievable 3.2 Gbps
 Ability to put lots of devices on the bus. It is possible to connect up to 63 devices to a
FireWire bus. Windows operating systems (98 and later) and Mac OS (8.6 and later) both
support it.
 Hot-pluggable ability - they can be connected and disconnected at any time, even with
the power on.
 Provision of power through the cable - FireWire allows devices to draw their power from
their connection.
 Plug-and-play performance - if you connect a new FireWire device to your computer, the
operating system auto-detects it and asks for the driver disc. If you've already installed
the device, the computer activates it and starts talking to it.
 Low cabling cost
 Low implementation cost
 Ease of use.

The key difference between FireWire and USB is that FireWire is intended for devices working
with a lot more data -- things like camcorders, DVD players and digital audio equipment.
Implementing FireWire costs a little more than USB, which led to the adoption of USB as the
standard for connecting most peripherals that do not require a high-speed bus. Speed aside, the
big difference between FireWire and USB 2.0 is that USB 2.0 is host-based, meaning that
devices must connect to a computer in order to communicate. FireWire is peer-to-peer, meaning
that two FireWire cameras can talk to each other without going through a computer.
PS/2 Port
IBM developed the PS/2 port. It is also called a mouse port. It is used to connect a computer
mouse or keyboard. A PS/2 connector is a round connector with 6 pins. Nowadays few
computers have two PS/2 ports, one for keyboard and one for mouse. A colour code is used to tr
 distinguish between the two ports the keyboard port is green and the mouse has a
purple port.
Keyboard Port
In earlier computers the keyboard was connected using a 5-pin DIN connector with a small notch
on one side. The purpose of keeping the notch was to avoid a wrong connection. With the advent
of the PS/2, this socket has become obsolete.

Monitor Socket
This connector is used to attach a computer display monitor to a computer's video card. The
connector has 15 holes.
Audio/Speaker and Microphone Socket
At the back of the computer system we can find three small sockets of blue, green and pink
colours used to connect speakers, audio input devices and microphones to the PC respectively.
The connectors for microphone and speakers look like as shown in the adjacent figure. They are
colour coded to help in troubleshooting.
 CHAPTER FIVE
MEMORY MODULES AND SYSTEM DRIVES
3.0 WHAT IS MEMORY MODULE
This is a semiconductor-based memory, that can be read and written to by the microprocessor
or other hardware devices, they consist of I.C (integrated circuit) made of group of
electronics flip-flop, that is capable of story 1 bit of information as long as required. In this
case it is refer to has “RAM” Random Access Memory.
3.1 TYPES OF MEMORY MODULE
a) SIMM: Single Inline Memory Module
This consists of 72 pins ranging from 4MB-64MB that will fill a corresponding slots, some early
computer uses 30/32 pins memory modules (1MB-4MB). SIMM slots are divided into banks 0,
1, 2.3.4 depend on the mainboard architecture, it can also be labelled SIMM 1, SIMM 2 and so
on.
SIMM Installation Procedure
 Insert the SIMM memory vertically into the SIMM slot.
Push in so that the clip at the side is close
b) DIMM: Double Inline memory module
This is a type of memory module that provides 168pins corresponding to the slot provided on the
motherboard.
Kinds of DIMM Specification
i. DRAM: (Dual Random Access Memory) These are kinds of DIMM technology
available in 16MB, 32MB, and 64MB and as a single module.
ii. SDRAM: Synchronous Dual Random Access Memory ranging from 64MB, 128MB,
Hz clock speed.
Motherboard are designed to support DIMM specification with respect to the manufacturer of the
mainboard, hence only one specification is expected to be used on a motherboard, it also select
board base on its bus speed.
DIMM Installation Procedure
 On the DIMM slot pull the locking latches at the two end of the slot.
 Place the memory module correctly and insert it into the DIMM slot.
  Press the module down into the slot until the latches lock.
To remove SIMM/DIMM
 Pull the latches at the two end.
 Remove the memory module
Note: Some motherboard has slots for both SIMM and DIMM

4.0 SYSTEM DRIVES

Drives are mechanism that uses an area of storage that is formatted with a file system, and has a
drive letter. The storage can be a floppy disk a CD, a hard disk, Zip etc
Storage Device
Storing data is an important part of a computer system. The main concern of all computer designers
is to create fast and efficient storage devices. As is commonly known, the primary memory inside
the computer (Random Access Memory or RAM) is volatile i.e. whatever is stored in RAM is lost
as soon as the computer is switched off. So if there is a need to save data from getting lost, it can
be put on a storage device like floppy disk, hard disks and CD-ROMS before switching off the
Computer.
1.6.1 Floppy Disk
It is a smaller capacity removable storage device. It is made up of thin and flexible plastic material.
This thin plastic film is coated with a magnetic material known as iron oxide for recording data
and is protected by a hard outer cover. It is very useful in transferring data from one computer to
another.
Plastic Jacket

Write Protect Notch

Although technology has not changed substantially, floppy disks have certainly changed
considerably in order to meet the very demanding needs of the marketplace. From an 8 inch size
they have evolved to a much smaller size with larger capacities. Today's standard 3.5 inch diskettes
hold a formatted capacity of about 1.44 megabytes. The evolution of the personal computer acted
as a catalyst primary for designers to reduce the size and cost of floppies. Very quickly the floppy
became the standard method of exchanging data between personal computers. It also became the
popular method of storing moderate amounts of information outside of the computer's hard drive.
Diskettes are small, inexpensive, readily available, easy to store, and have a good shelf life if stored
properly.
1.7 Hard Disk Drive
It is a storage device with very large capacity, which ranges from 1GB to Terabytes in the modern
scenario. It is placed inside the cabinet of CPU (Although external hard drives are also available
these days). It is not a removable drive in normal circumstances. A hard disk has a much larger
storage capacity than a floppy disk. It is fitted inside the computer and cannot be seen by us. There
can be one or more hard disk in the system unit of a computer. They were originally called "fixed
disks" or "Winchesters". They later became known as "hard disks" to distinguish them from
"floppy disks." Hard disks have a hard platter that holds the magnetic medium, as opposed to the
flexible plastic film found in tapes and floppies. At the simplest level, a hard disk uses magnetic
recording techniques just like the floppy disk. Major benefits of magnetic storage - the magnetic
medium can be easily erased and rewritten, and it will "remember" the magnetic flux patterns
stored onto the medium for many years. The working of a hard disk is similar to that of a floppy
disk. In order to increase the amount of information the drive can store, most hard disks have
multiple platters.
1.8 CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)
It is a storage device with medium capacity i.e. to hold 650 MB/700 MB (60/80 Min.
Audio/Video). Computer has special drive known as CD-Drive to provide support for placing and
running CDs. It can store data, audio and video. It is made up of plastic with special surface having
optical sensitivity. CD-Drive has a laser light source that reads data from the CD-ROM. The CD-
ROM surface is a mirror covered with billions of tiny bumps that are arranged in a long, tightly
wound spiral track of data, circling from the inside of the disc to the outside. The CD-Drive reads
the bumps with a precise laser and interprets the information as bits of data. CD-ROMs are
economical and easily available storage media. CDs are available in variations such as CD-R
(Compact Disk Recordable) and CD-RW (Compact Disk Rewritable). The data on CD-R media
can only be written once whereas CD-RW media allows multiple write/over-write operations on
it. There are two types of CD Drives, one known as CD-R Drive that performs only read operation,
and the other known as CD-RW Drive (or CD-Burner) that performs read as well write operations.

Figure 5:CD media and CD drive

1.8.1 Working of a CD-ROM Drive
When you play a CD, the laser beam passes through the CD's polycarbonate layer, reflects off the
aluminum layer and hits an optoelectronic device that detects changes in light. The bumps reflect
light differently than the flat parts of the aluminum layer, which are called lands. The
optoelectronic sensor detects these changes in reflectivity, and the electronics in the CD-player
drive interpret the changes as data bits.
1.9 DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)
Computer has special drive known as DVD-Drive to provide support for placing and running
DVDs. A DVD is very similar to a CD, but it has a much larger data storage capacity. A standard
DVD media holds about seven times more data than a CD media. This huge capacity means that a
DVD has enough room to store a full-length, MPEG- 2-encoded movie, as well as other
information. A DVD can store data, audio and video. It is made up of plastic with special surface
having optical sensitivity denser as compared to CDs. A DVD drive is capable of running a CD
media also. The DVD media can store up to 4.7 GB of data as compared to 650-700 MB storage
capacity of CD-ROMs. DVDs are of the same diameter and thickness as CDs, and they are made
using some of the same materials and manufacturing methods. Like a CD, the data on a DVD is
encoded in the form of small pits and bumps in the track of the disc.
1.10 Pen Drive
This is a type of flash memory storage device of the size of a thumb and can plug into the USB
port of the computer. USB flash drives are more compact, generally faster, hold more data, and
are more reliable (due to their lack of moving parts) than disk storage. Most flash drives use a
standard USB connector, which is connected directly to the USB port on a personal computer.
Flash drive is nearly free from scratch and dust problems that exist in the other storage media, such
as floppy disks and compact discs. This makes it ideal for transporting data or work files from one
location to another, such as from home to school or office or work places. It also allows one to
perform multiple read-write operations. Flash drives are also a relatively dense form of storage,
where even the cheapest will store dozens of floppy disks worth of data. Some can hold more data
than a CD (700 MB). Top of the line flash drives can store more data than a DVD. Flash drives
often last for 500,000 or more erase/write cycles. Optical storage devices are also slower than their
flash-based counterparts.
4.1 Hard Disk Drive
Hard Disk Drive: This is an auxiliary storage device physically made of platters and head,
logically made up of cylinders and sectors for the purpose of data storage. One or more inflexible
platters coated with material that allows the magnetic recording computer data. A typical hard disk
rotate 3600 revolution per minute (RPM), and the read/write heads ride over surface of the disk on
a cushion of air 10th to 25th millions of inch deep. A hard disk is sealed to prevent contaminant
from interfering with the close head-to-disk tolerances.
Types of Hard disk Drive
A. Enhance Small Device Interface (ESDI): It is an older type of hard disk standard that can
be used with high capacity hard disk and to enable high –speed communication with a
computer. ESDI drivers typically transfer data about 10 Mbps.
B. Modified Frequency (MFM): MFM is also an older type of hard disk that uses 17 sectors
track, to encode data/information; where the data coding scheme is built into the controller
and not the hard disk. They are low capacity such as 25MB, 30MB, 40MB etch consist 20
pins (data cable), and 34 pins (controller cable.)
C. Run Length Limited (RLL): It has similar features with MFM but it uses 26 sector per
track.
D. Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE): This is a type of disk drive with interface in which
the controller electronics reside on the drive itself, eliminating the need for a separate
adapter card. It is most commonly used. IDE is otherwise known as A.T.A, AT attachment,
since the IDE are built using ATA technology. IDE drive contains the following features:
 4 pins power connectors
 Single ATA interface connector (40 pins)
 Jumpers
4.2 IDE CABLE CONNECTION
 Connect a power to the drive on the lead connector from the computer case. Adapter or
IDE connector.
 Connect the interface cable to both the drive and the host adapter or IDE connector on the
mainboard.
  Ensure that you align pin 1 on the host adapter or mainboard with pin 1 on your drive. It is
usually indicated by a stripe (red or blue) along the edge of the cable.
Master/Slave Configuration
The technology incorporated in master/slave configuration in which one controller take over the
function of the other drive. It means that you can install up to two drive with a single cable. This
setup is called a Master/Slave configuration i.e. one controller directs the activities of both drive.
Installing Master and Slave Hard Drive
It involve two procedures:
Jumper setting: See the drive label information to determine which jumper setting for a master or
a slave
Physical Installation:
 Determine which drive will be the master.
 Install/connect on the end of the ribbon cable and secure it to available drive bay on the
computer case.
 Install the second drive in the middle of the ribbon cable.
 Always set the hard disk as master since the operating system resides there.
 Set the CD-ROM as slave.
 See drive label for jumper setting.
4.3 DRIVE ASSIGNMENTS
System drive must be assign a drive letter, this is part of operating system’s logical device control
services. This is the naming convention for disk drive on IBM and compatible computer. Drives
are named with letter beginning with A followed by a colon.
Disk Drive Letter Assignment
Floppy disk drive A: or B: First or Second drive
Hard disk drive C: Primary partition of the fixed
disk (primary master)
CD-ROM drive D: Primary slave
Also, D: can be assign to the second partition of fixed disk or primary slave in a system where
master/slave configuration for two different hard disk drive is present, therefore, the master will
be C:, the slave will be D:, the CD-ROM (secondary master) will be E:.
Note: The letters are liable to change when you add or remove a drive to or from multi-drive
system, the drive are automatically relettered so that there are no letter skipped. For example,
suppose a system includes drives C: D: and E:, if D: is removed, E: will be relabeled D: the next
time the computer is started.

HARD DISK SETUP

This is process of making hard disk accessible by the operating system. It involves two important
stages.
Hard Disk Partitioning
This is a process in which hard disk is logically divided into portions of physical disk, that
functions as though it were physically a separate unit. Ms-dos can divide a hard disk into primary
partition and an extended partition, the primary (active partition) is assigned the drive letter of C:
by default, the logical drives that are defined in the extended partition are assigned sequential drive
letters.
 CHAPTER SIX

BUS

BUS

A bus is a set of signal pathways that allow information to travel between components inside or
outside of a computer.

Types of Bus

External bus or Expansion bus allows the CPU to talk to the other devices in the computer and
vice versa. It is called that because it's external to the CPU.

Address bus allows the CPU to talk to a device. It will select the particular memory address that
the device is using and use the address bus to write to that particular address.

Data bus allows the device to send information back to the CPU

Types of Expansion Buses

ISA
Introduced by IBM, ISA or Industry Standard Architecture was originally an 8-bit bus and
later expanded to a 16-bit bus in 1984. When this bus was originally released it was a proprietary
bus, which allowed only IBM to create peripherals and the actual interface. Later however in the
early 1980's the bus was being created by other clone manufacturers. This is still in use because
it's cheap and for backwards compatibility

16bit ISA Card

16bit ISA Slot

PCI
Introduced by Intel in 1992, PCI is short for Peripheral Component Interconnect and is a 32-
bit or 64-bit expansion bus.The PCI bus is the most popular expansion bus use in today's
computers

PCI Card

PCI 64 and 32bit Slot

AGP
Introduced by Intel in 1997, AGP or Advanced Graphic Port is a 32-bit bus or 64-bit bus designed
for the high demands of 3-D graphics. AGP has a direct line to the computer’s memory which
allows 3-D elements to be stored in the system memory instead of the video memory.
AGP is one of the fastest expansion bus in use but its only for video or graphics environment.

AGP Card

AGP Slot

Expansion Bus Chart:

Type of Bus Bits Wide Clock Speed Transfer Speed

ISA 8 bit 4.77 MHz 2.38MB/s

ISA 16 bit 8.33 MHz 8MB/s

PCI (Client) 32 bit 33MHz 133MB/s

PCI (Server) 64 bit 66MHz 266MB/s

AGP 1x 32 bit 66MHz 266MB/s

AGP 2x 32 bit 66MHz 533MB/s

AGP 4x 32 bit 66MHz 1,066MB/s

AGP 8x 32 bit 66MHz 2,133MB/s

AGP 8x (high-end) 64 bit 66MHz 4,266MB/s

Bus Mastering-Ability of bus device to bypass the CPU can be set at the CMOS setup

USB_A Connector

USB_B Connector
AMR
Released September 8, 1998, AMR is short for Audio/Modem Riser. AMR allows an OEM to
create one card that has the functionality of either Modem or Audio or both Audio and Modem on
one card. This new specification allows for the motherboard to be manufactured at a lower cost
and free up industry standard expansion slots in the system for other additional plug-in peripherals.

AMR Slot

CNR
Introduced by Intel February 7, 2000, CNR is short for Communication and Network Riser and
is a specification that supports audio, modem USB and Local Area Networking interfaces of core
logic chipsets.

CNR Slot

PCI-X
PCI-X is a high performance bus that is designed to meet the increased I/O demands of
technologies such as Fibre Channel, Gigabit Ethernet and Ultra3 SCSI.

PCI-X card
PCI-X Slots

Type of Bus Bits Wide Clock Speed Transfer Speed

PCI-X (v1) 64bit 66MHz * 8 = 528MB/s

PCI-X (v1) 64bit 100MHz * 8 = 800MB/s

PCI-X (v1) 64bit 133MHz * 8 = 1066MB/s

PCI Express A high speed serial I/O interconnect standard being used for high speed connection
it will eventually replace the PCI standards

PCI-e Card

PCI-Express

Lane Widths Peak unidirectional bandwidth Peak full duplex bandwidth

x1 250MB/s 500MB/s
 x2 500MB/s 1GB/s

x4 1GB/s 2GB/s

x8 2GB/s 4GB/s

x16 4GB/s 8GB/s

PCIe slots

Laptop Buses

PCMCIA or PC Card
Personal Computer memory card international association is a type of bus use for laptops. There
are different types of cards and you primarily slide in the card in a PC card slot of a laptop.

Type II PCMCIA Card

PC Card Types Measurement Usage

Type I 3.3mm Flash Memory

Type II 5.0mm USB/NIC/Wireless

 Type III 10.5mm Hard Drive

PCMCIA cards supports 16 or 32 bit bus width

Express Card is the newest form of card you insert in newer laptops

Some Important Add-on Cards

a) Video Card – This contains the circutries, that process images and sends the visual Display
Unit (monitor), the video relies on proper function of both the video card and the monitor.
The simply display the images sent to it by the video card. When you replace or install new
video system, ensure the monitor and video card that is you use a VGA monitor with a
VGA video card or a S.V.G,A video card, system installation is the same as other
expansion, operating system with automatic detect and configure the card if it is plug and
play. Video card have 15 female connectors.

b) Network Aapter Card- Network adapter card also known as Ethernet card act as the
physical interface or connection between the computer and the network cable. The cards
are installed in an expansion slot in each computer and server that are present in the
network. After the card has been installed, the network cable is attached on the card port,
to make the actual physical connection between the computer and rest of the network. The
network adapter card also receive incoming data from the cable and translate into bytes, so
that computers CPU can understand.

c) Fax modem adapter: is a communication adapter that enables a computer to transmit

information over a standard telephone line. Because a computer is digital, it works with
discrete electrical signals representing binary 1 and 0. A telephone is an analog device that
carries a signal that have a large number of variation. Modem are needed to digital to analog
 and vice versa. When transmitting, modems impose (modulate) a computer’s digital
signals into a continuous carrier frequency on the telephone line. When receiving, modems
sift out (demodulate), the information the carrier and transfer it to the computer. Modem
are available in both internal and external modem. The internal modem are installed in an
expansion slot like any other circuit board.

Figure: Overview Architecture of I/O Buses

 CHAPTER SEVEN

SETTING BIOS

System configuration depends on the architecture of mainboard, the content of each BIOS-

SETUP (Basic Input/Output System) also known as CMOS-SETUP (Complementary metal

oxide semi-conductor). It is determined by the mainboard manufacturer, where all the peripheral

are setup. It also contains information about input/output devices and controls all the chipsets in

the mainboard.

To enter BIOS-SETUP

Procedure:

Turn ON or reboot the system, the system displays series of routine test; where the system will

display any of the following:

‘’ Press Enter to enter setup’’

‘’ Press Delete to enter setup’’

‘’Press F1 to enter setup’’

The message displays depends on the system setup as written by the mainboard manufacturer.

Hit the key display i.e DEL.

Auto Detect

The BIOS on the system board has a neat auto detect feature, which often allows EIDE units to

be connected directly and work immediately. The PC start up program automatically finds the

necessary information about the drive via the auto detect function. Sometimes you have to assist

the hard disk installation by activating the auto detect in the CMOS Setup program, but often it

runs by itself. There is definitely no need to key in information about cylinders, etc., as you had

to with earlier IDE units.

 CHAPTER EIGHT

MODEMS

Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator. Modems are used for data transfer from
one computer network to another ter network through telephone lines. The computer network
works in digital mode, while analog technology is used for carrying massages across phone lines.

Modulator converts information from digital mode to analog mode at the transmitting end and
demodulator converts the same from analog to digital at receiving end. The process of
converting analog signals of one computer network into digital signals of another computer
network so they can be processed by a receiving computer is referred to as digitizing.

When an analog facility is used for data communication between two digital devices called Data
Terminal Equipment (DTE), modems are used at each end. DTE can be a terminal or a computer.

Modems are general classified by the amount of data they can they send in a given unit of time
usually expressed in bits per second (bps). Modern can also be classified by their symbol rate
measured in Baud. The baud unit denote symbols per second or the number of times per second
the modem sends a new signal. For example, the ITU V.21 standard used audio frequency shift
keying (ASK) with two possible frequencies, corresponding to two distinct symbols (or one bit per
symbol), transmitted 1,200 bit by sending 600 symbols per second (600 baud) using phase shift
keying (PSK).

The transmission speed of s modem is expressed as the Baud Rate. Baud rate is the number of
bits that can be transferred in 1 second.
The modem at the transmitting end converts the digital signal generated by DTE into an analog
signal by modulating a carrier. This modem at the receiving end demodulates the carrier and hand
over the demodulated digital signal to the DTE.

The transmission medium between the two modems can be dedicated circuit or a switched
telephone circuit. If a switched telephone circuit is used, then the modems are connected to the
local telephone exchanges. Whenever data transmission is required connection between the
modems is established through telephone exchanges.

Types of Modems

Modems can be of several types and they can be categorized in a number of ways. Categorization
is usually based on the following basic modem features:

1. Directional capacity: half duplex modem and full duplex modem.

2. Connection to the line: 2-wire modem and 4-wire modem.

3. Transmission mode: asynchronous modem and synchronous modem.

Half duplex and full duplex Modems

Half duplex - A half-duplex modem permits transmission in one direction at a time. If a carrier
is detected on the line by the modem, it gives an indication of the incoming carrier to the DTE
through a control signal of its digital interface.
Full duplex

A full duplex modem allows simultaneous transmission in both directions. It can simultaneously
handle two signals using two carriers to transmit and receive data. Each carrier uses half of
bandwidth available to it and its modulation. Therefore, there are two carriers on the line, one
outgoing and the other incoming.

2-Wire and 4-Wire Modems

The line interface of the modem can have a 2-wire or a 4-wire connection to transmission medium.
In a 4-wire connection, one pair of wires is used for the outgoing carrier and the other pair is used
for incoming carrier. Full duplex and half duplex modes of data transmission are possible on a 4-
wire connection. IIAs the physical transmission path for each direction is separate, the same carrier
frequency can be used for both the directions.

2-wire Modem

2-wire modems use the same pair of wires for outgoing and incoming carriers. A leased 2-wire
connection is usually cheaper than a 4-wire connection as only one pair of wires is extended to the
subscriber's premises. The data connection established through telephone exchange is also a 2-
wire connection. In 2-wire modems, half duplex mode of transmission that uses the same
frequency for the incoming and outgoing carriers can be easily implemented. For full duplex mode
of operation, it is necessary to have two transmission channels, one for transmit direction and the
other for receive direction. This is achieved by frequency division multiplexing of two different
carrier frequencies. These carriers are placed within the bandwidth of the speech channel.

Asynchronous & Synchronous Modems

Asynchronous Modem

Asynchronous modems can handle data bytes with start and stop bits. There is no separate timing
signal or clock between the modem and the DTE. The internal timing pulses are synchronized
repeatedly to the leading edge of the start pulse.

Synchronous Modem

Synchronous modems can handle a continuous stream of data bits but requires a clock signal. The
data bits are always synchronized to the clock signal. There are separate clocks for the data bits
being transmitted and received. For synchronous transmission of data bits, the DTE can use its
internal clock and supply the same to the modem.
Modulation techniques used for Modem:

The basic modulation techniques used by a modem to convert digital data to analog signals are:

• Amplitude shift keying (ASK) – is not mostly used for data communications because
it is susceptible to electrical noise interference
• Frequency shift keying (FSK) – Low speed modem use FSK
• Phase shift keying (PSK) – High speed modem use PSK and very high speed use PSK
and also TCM
• Differential PSK (DPSK)
• Continuous Wave Modulation (CW)
• Trellis Code Modulation (TCM) – used for very high speed modem and is a
modulation with error detecting code.

V Series Modem

V.22 – 600 baud, 1200bps, PSK

V.22 bis – 600 baud, 2400bps,

In these series, there 3 different amplitudes and possible phase shift. Full duplex operation is
achieved by a low-channel carrier frequency of 1200Hz and a high-channel carrier frequency of
2400Hz.

V.29

• 16 points QAM signal constellation

• 8 phases with 4 amplitudes QAM
• 2400 baud, 9600bps synchronous data transmission over four-wire leased line.
• It uses a single carrier frequency at 1700Hz and operates at 2400baud.

V.32 – 9600bps, sync, FDX, 2400 baud, 4:1bpb, PP2W, STN

V.32 bis – 14,400bps, sync, FDX, 2400 baud, 7:1bpb, PP2W, STN, TCM

V.33 - 14,400bps, sync, FDX, 2400 baud, 7:1bpb, PP4W, STN, TCM

V.34 – Very fast, 28,800bps, sync, FDX, 2400 baud, 12:1bpb, PP2W, STN, TCM
Note:

Sync – Synchronous

FDX – Full Duplex

Bpb – bit per baud

STN – for use on switched Telephone Network

PP2W – for use on point –to-point two wire leased circuits

PP4W - for use on point –to-point two wire leased circuits

TCM – Trellis Code Modulation