Title of the Document

Student Name

Institution Name

What is Probability?

Probability is the chance of something happening. It tells us how likely an event is to occur. The

value of probability is always between 0 (impossible) and 1 (certain). It can be written as a decimal,

fraction, or percentage.

Types of Probability

 Theoretical Probability

This is based on what we expect to happen in an ideal situation, without doing any experiments.

Formula:

Example:

If you roll a die, the probability of getting a 3 is because there is 1 favorable outcome and 6 possible

outcomes.
 Experimental Probability

This is based on actual experiments and real observations.

Formula:

Example:

If you toss a coin 10 times and get heads 6 times, the probability of getting heads is .

Note: Experimental probability can be affected by sample size and randomness.

 Empirical Probability

Also based on real-world data but focuses on past events or historical records.
Formula:

Where:

= Number of times the event happens

= Total number of observations

Example:

In a survey of 200 students, 135 liked psychology, and 65 did not.

Probability of liking psychology =

Probability of disliking psychology = .

 Subjective Probability

This is based on personal opinion, intuition, or experience rather than data or experiments.
Example:

An investor might say, “I think there’s a 70% chance the stock market will rise next month,” based

on their judgment and experience.

Key Differences

Theoretical Probability: Based on expected outcomes under perfect conditions.

Experimental Probability: Based on actual experiments and trials.

Empirical Probability: Based on past data and real-world observations.

Subjective Probability: Based on personal belief or intuition, not on facts.

Real-World Applications

Quality Control: Manufacturers use probabilities to predict defects and improve product reliability.
Insurance: Companies assess risks using past data and adjust models based on real-time data.

Scientific Research: Researchers use experiments to compare theoretical predictions with actual

results.

Example Viva Questions

 What is probability, and what are its possible values?

 How is theoretical probability different from experimental probability?

 Can you explain empirical probability with an example?

 What factors can affect experimental probability?

 How do subjective and empirical probabilities differ?

 Here are simple answers to the viva questions:



 ---


 1. What is probability, and what are its possible values?


 Answer:

 Probability is the chance of something happening. It shows how likely an event is to occur.

The value of probability ranges from 0 to 1:


 0 means the event is impossible.


 1 means the event is certain.




 ---


 2. How is theoretical probability different from experimental probability?


 Answer:


 Theoretical Probability is based on what we expect to happen under ideal conditions,

without doing an experiment.

 Example: The chance of rolling a 6 on a die is .


 Experimental Probability is based on actual results from experiments or observations.

 Example: If you roll a die 10 times and get a 6 twice, the probability of getting a 6 is .




 ---


 3. Can you explain empirical probability with an example?

 Answer:

 Empirical probability uses real-world data or past records to calculate the likelihood of an

event.


 Example:

 In a survey of 200 students:


 135 like psychology → Probability of liking psychology = .


 65 dislike psychology → Probability of disliking psychology = .




 ---


 4. What factors can affect experimental probability?


 Answer:

 Experimental probability can be influenced by:


 1. Sample Size: A larger sample size gives more accurate results.



 2. Randomness: Fluctuations or chance can impact outcomes in small experiments.



 3. Experimental Errors: Mistakes in conducting the experiment or collecting data can affect

results.





 ---


 5. How do subjective and empirical probabilities differ?


 Answer:


 Empirical Probability is based on actual data or past events.

 Example: If 60 out of 100 people like apples, the probability is .


 Subjective Probability is based on personal judgment or intuition, without relying on data.

 Example: An investor saying, “I believe there is a 70% chance the market will rise next

month.”




 ---


 These answers are short and to the point to help you in your [Link] are some additional

viva questions with answers to help you prepare:



 ---


 6. Why is probability important in real life?


 Answer:

 Probability helps us make decisions in uncertain situations. Some real-life applications

include:


 1. Weather Forecasting: Predicting the chance of rain or snow.


 2. Insurance: Calculating risks to set premiums.



 3. Games of Chance: Estimating winning odds in lotteries or gambling.



 4. Quality Control: Predicting defects in products during manufacturing.





 ---


 7. What are favorable and total outcomes in probability?


 Answer:


 Favorable Outcomes: The outcomes we are interested in or want to happen.

 Example: When rolling a die, if we want a 3, the favorable outcome is just “3.”


 Total Outcomes: All possible outcomes in an experiment.

 Example: Rolling a die has 6 total outcomes (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).




 ---


 8. What is the difference between theoretical and empirical probability?


 Answer:


 Theoretical Probability: Based on what should happen in ideal conditions.
 Example: The chance of flipping heads is .


 Empirical Probability: Based on what actually happens from past data or experiments.

 Example: Flipping a coin 10 times and getting heads 7 times → Probability = .




 ---


 9. What is randomness in probability?


 Answer:

 Randomness means outcomes happen by chance and cannot be predicted exactly. For

example, the result of rolling a die or flipping a coin is random because you can’t know the

outcome in advance.



 ---


 10. What does it mean if the probability of an event is 0? What if it’s 1?


 Answer:


 Probability = 0: The event is impossible and will never happen.

 Example: Rolling a 7 on a standard die.


 Probability = 1: The event is certain and will always happen.

 Example: Getting a number less than 7 when rolling a standard die.




 ---

 11. Can probabilities be greater than 1? Why or why not?


 Answer:

 No, probabilities cannot be greater than 1 because probability represents the likelihood of

an event. The maximum likelihood is 100% (or 1), meaning the event is certain.



 ---


 12. What is the difference between subjective and theoretical probability?


 Answer:


 Theoretical Probability: Based on logical reasoning and mathematical calculations.

 Example: Probability of getting tails on a coin toss is .


 Subjective Probability: Based on personal beliefs, opinions, or experience, not calculations.

 Example: Believing there is a 70% chance of rain tomorrow based on how the sky looks.




 ---


 13. What is the law of large numbers in probability?


 Answer:

 The law of large numbers states that as the number of trials increases, the experimental

probability will get closer to the theoretical probability.


 Example: If you flip a coin 1,000 times, the result will be closer to 50% heads compared to

flipping it just 10 times.



 ---


 14. What is a sample space in probability?


 Answer:

 A sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment.


 Example:


 For rolling a die, the sample space is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.


 For flipping a coin, the sample space is {Heads, Tails}.




 ---


 15. What is meant by mutually exclusive events?


 Answer:

 Two events are mutually exclusive if they cannot happen at the same time.


 Example:


 Rolling a die: Getting a 2 and a 5 are mutually exclusive because you can’t get both on the

same roll.


 Flipping a coin: Getting heads and tails at the same time is impossible.



 ---


 16. What is the complement of an event?


 Answer:

 The complement of an event is the probability of the event not happening.

 Formula:


 Example:

 If the probability of raining is 0.7, the complement (no rain) is .



 ---


 17. What is conditional probability?


 Answer:

 Conditional probability is the probability of one event happening, given that another event

has already happened.

 Formula:



 Example: If a card is drawn from a deck, the probability it’s a King given that it’s a face card

is .



 ---


 18. What are independent and dependent events?

 Answer:


 Independent Events: Events where one does not affect the other.

 Example: Tossing two coins — getting heads on one doesn’t affect the other.


 Dependent Events: Events where one affects the probability of the other.

 Example: Drawing two cards without replacement — the second draw depends on the first.




 ---


 19. What is the difference between experimental and empirical probability?


 Answer:


 Experimental Probability is based on results from a specific experiment.

 Example: Tossing a coin 10 times and getting heads 6 times → .


 Empirical Probability is based on long-term data or historical records.

 Example: If a factory produces 10,000 items and 500 are defective, the probability of a

defect is .




 ---


 20. How can sample size affect probability?


 Answer:
 A larger sample size usually makes experimental or empirical probabilities more accurate

because they reduce the effect of random fluctuations. Smaller samples may give misleading

probabilities due to limited data.

 What is a T-Test?

Answer:

A T-Test is a statistical test used to compare the means (averages) of two groups to see if they

are significantly different from each other.

 Types of T-Tests

 Independent Samples T-Test:

Compares the means of two different groups.

Example: Comparing test scores of boys and girls in a class.

 Paired Samples T-Test:

Compares the means of the same group before and after an intervention.

Example: Measuring student performance before and after a study program.

  Key Terms in T-Tests

Test Variable: The dependent variable (e.g., test scores) whose mean is being compared.

Grouping Variable: The independent variable that divides the data into two groups (e.g., gender:

male/female).

Confidence Interval: The range within which the true difference in means is expected to fall.

 Steps to Run an Independent T-Test in SPSS

1. Go to Analyze > Compare Means > Independent Samples T-Test.

2. Add your dependent variable to the Test Variable section.

3. Add your independent variable to the Grouping Variable section.

4. Define the groups (e.g., 1 = Male, 2 = Female).

5. Click OK to run the test.

6. Questions You May Face in Viva

Q1: What is the purpose of a T-Test?

A: To compare the averages of two groups and check if the difference is meaningful or by

chance.

Q2: What is the difference between an independent and paired T-Test?

A: Independent compares two separate groups, while paired compares the same group at two

points in time.

Q3: What is the significance level in a T-Test?

A: The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it’s true, commonly set at 0.05 (5%).

Q4: What does a p-value indicate in a T-Test?

 A: It tells us whether the difference between groups is statistically significant.

P < 0.05: Significant difference.

P > 0.05: No significant difference.

Q5: What assumptions must be met for a T-Test?

A:

1. Data should be normally distributed.

2. Groups should have similar variances.

3. The data should be independent.

7. Regression Analysis (Simplified)

Definition: A method to study the relationship between two or more variables.

 Types:

Simple Regression: One independent and one dependent variable.

Example: Predicting weight based on height.

Multiple Regression: More than one independent variable.

Example: Predicting student grades using study hours and class attendance.

8. Questions on Regression

Q1: What is the difference between correlation and regression?

A:

Correlation: Measures the strength of the relationship between two variables.

Regression: Predicts one variable based on another.

Q2: What is the formula for a simple linear regression line?

A:

Where:
 : Dependent variable

: Independent variable

: Intercept

: Slope

Q3: What does R-squared mean?

A: It shows how much of the variation in the dependent variable is explained by the

independent variable(s).

9. Practical Example for Viva

Scenario: A company wants to compare the productivity of two teams (Team A and Team B).

Question: What test should you use?

Answer: Use an Independent Samples T-Test because you are comparing the means of two

different groups.

Scenario: A teacher wants to see if a new teaching method improves scores.

Question: What test should you use?

Answer: Use a Paired Samples T-Test because the same group is measured before and after the

[Link]’s the extracted meaningful content from the file, organized and cleaned for clarity:

T-Test Statistics

The document focuses on Correlation, T-Test, and Regression Analysis and is composed by Ms.

Dawra Mehmood, an Associate Clinical Psychologist, Psychotherapist, and Educationist at Thal

University Bhakkar.

Independent Samples T-Test

Steps to Perform in SPSS:

1. Go to: Analyze > Compare Means > Independent Samples T-Test.

2. Test Variable:

This is the dependent variable, which is continuous.

It represents the values to compare between two groups.

Multiple test variables can be selected for running simultaneous tests.

3. Grouping Variable:

This is the independent variable.

It defines the groups for comparison and must have at least two categories.

If the grouping variable has more than two categories, you need to specify which two groups to

compare.

4. Define Groups:

Use the “Define Groups” option to specify which categories (groups) to compare.

Ensure the independent variable is moved to the “Grouping Variable” field before defining

groups.
 5. Options:

Set the desired confidence level for the confidence interval (e.g., 95%).

Choose how SPSS should handle missing values.

Key Definitions:

Test Variable: The dependent variable whose means are being compared between groups.

Grouping Variable: The independent variable categorizing the samples.

Confidence Interval: A range estimating the true difference in means between groups.

This is the cleaned-up version of your file’s content in text form. Let me know if you need

further edits or specific parts explained in simpler terms!What is Variance?

Variance is a statistical measure that tells us how much the data points in a set differ from the

average (mean) of the set. It shows how “spread out” or “scattered” the data is.

Why is Variance Important?

Variance helps us understand the consistency or variability in data.

Low Variance: Data points are close to the mean (less spread out).

Example: Scores of 80, 81, and 79 in a test.

High Variance: Data points are far from the mean (more spread out).

Example: Scores of 50, 80, and 90 in a test.

Formula for Variance

For a sample:

\text{Variance (s}^2\text{)} = \frac{\sum (x_i - \bar{x})^2}{n-1}

Where:
: Each data point.

: The mean of the data.

: Number of data points.

: Squared difference between each data point and the mean.

Steps to Calculate Variance

1. Find the Mean: Add all data points and divide by the total number of points.

Example: Data = 2, 4, 6. Mean = .

2. Subtract the Mean from Each Data Point:

Example: .

3. Square Each Difference:

Example: .
 4. Find the Average of the Squared Differences:

Add the squared differences and divide by (if it’s a sample) or (if it’s a population).

Example: Variance = .

Key Terms Related to Variance

1. Standard Deviation:

The square root of variance. It measures the spread in the same units as the data.

Formula:

\text{Standard Deviation} = \sqrt{\text{Variance}}

2. Population Variance vs. Sample Variance:

Population Variance: Used when analyzing an entire dataset. Denominator = .

Sample Variance: Used for a subset (sample) of the dataset. Denominator = .

 Example for Better Understanding

Imagine the test scores of three students: 10, 12, and 14.

Find the Mean:

\text{Mean} = \frac{10+12+14}{3} = 12

Subtract the Mean and Square Each Difference:

(10-12)^2 = 4, (12-12)^2 = 0, (14-12)^2 = 4

Find the Variance:

\text{Variance} = \frac{4+0+4}{3-1} = \frac{8}{2} = 4

Find the Standard Deviation:

\text{Standard Deviation} = \sqrt{4} = 2

Questions You May Face in Viva

What is variance?

Variance shows how much the data varies (spreads out) from the mean.

What is the difference between variance and standard deviation?

Variance measures the average squared differences from the mean.

Standard deviation is the square root of variance, making it easier to interpret.

Why do we use for sample variance?

Using (called Bessel’s correction) adjusts for the fact that a sample tends to underestimate the

true population variance.

What does it mean if variance is 0?

If variance is 0, all data points are the same (no spread).

What is the unit of variance?

Variance is in squared units of the data. For example, if data is in meters, variance is in meters2

What is Standard Deviation?

Standard Deviation (SD) is a measure of how spread out the data is around the mean. It tells us

whether the data points are close to the average or far apart.

Why is Standard Deviation Important?

Low SD: Data points are close to the mean (less variation).

Example: Test scores of 85, 86, and 84.

High SD: Data points are far from the mean (more variation).

Example: Test scores of 50, 85, and 100.

Formula for Standard Deviation

For a sample:

S = \sqrt{\frac{\sum (x_i - \bar{x})^2}{n-1}}

For a population:

\sigma = \sqrt{\frac{\sum (x_i - \mu)^2}{N}}

Where:

: Sample standard deviation.

: Population standard deviation.

: Each data point.

: Sample mean.

: Population mean.

: Number of data points in a sample minus 1.

 : Number of data points in the population.

Steps to Calculate Standard Deviation

Find the Mean: Add all the data points and divide by the total number.

Example: Data = 5, 7, 9 → Mean = .

Subtract the Mean from Each Data Point:

Example: .

Square Each Difference:

Example: .

Find the Variance:

Add the squared differences and divide by (for a sample) or (for a population).

Example: Variance = .

Take the Square Root of the Variance:

Example: Standard Deviation = .

 Key Points About Standard Deviation

Relationship with Variance:

Standard deviation is the square root of variance.

Variance measures spread in squared units, while SD uses the original units.

Units of SD:

SD has the same units as the data.

Example: If the data is in meters, SD is also in meters.

Standard Deviation vs. Range:

Range: Difference between the maximum and minimum values.

 SD: Accounts for how all data points spread around the mean.

Example for Understanding

Test scores: 10, 12, and 14.

Find the Mean:

\text{Mean} = \frac{10+12+14}{3} = 12

Subtract the Mean and Square Each Difference:

(10-12)^2 = 4, (12-12)^2 = 0, (14-12)^2 = 4

Find the Variance:

 \text{Variance} = \frac{4+0+4}{3-1} = \frac{8}{2} = 4

Find the Standard Deviation:

\text{SD} = \sqrt{\text{Variance}} = \sqrt{4} = 2

Questions You May Face in Viva

What is Standard Deviation?

Answer: It shows how much the data is spread out around the mean.

Why is Standard Deviation useful?

Answer: It helps us understand whether the data points are consistent (low SD) or vary a lot

(high SD).

What is the relationship between variance and standard deviation?

Answer: Standard Deviation is the square root of variance.

What does a standard deviation of 0 mean?

Answer: It means all the data points are the same (no variation).
How does sample SD differ from population SD?

Answer:

Sample SD uses in the formula to account for a smaller data set.

Population SD divides by , as it includes the entire dataset.

What is the unit of standard deviation?

Answer: It is the same as the unit of the data (e.g., meters, kilograms).