STAGES OF ANIMAL

DEVELOPMENT
• A. Gametogenesis
• diploid and haploid cells within the context of meiosis
• B. Fertilization
• C. Cleavage
• totipotent cells within the context of cleavage in
vertebrate animals
• D. Gastrulation - formation of three germ layers:
ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Each will give
rise to specific tissues and organs.
• E. Organogenesis
• F. Differentiation and Growth
 STAGES OF ANIMAL
DEVELOPMENT
• ECTODERM
• Nervous system (brain and spinal cord),
• epidermis, sense organs
• MESODERM
• muscles, bones, cartilage,
• circulatory, excretory, and reproductive
Organs
• ENDODERM
• digestive and respiratory organs,
• Endocrine glands,
• germ cells and gametes
 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
• I. Fertilization - Occurs in the fallopian
tube; results in a unicellular zygote
• II. Cleavage- Also takes place in the
fallopian tube after fertilization
• III. Morula and Blastocyst
• IV. Implantation- attachment of
blastocyst to endometrium of uterus; start
of pregnancy
• V. Gestation- embryonic development to
fetal development
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
• I. Sperm and egg
• II. Blastula (morula or
blastocyst)
• III. An embryo (less
than two month)
implanted in the uterus
• IV. A fetus inside the
uterus (3-9 months)
• V. A baby
• VI. An adult human
Reproductive
System
Human Anatomy
Human Anatomy
Human Anatomy
• During puberty the reproductive organs
mature to create a fertile individual capable of
reproducing.
• The primary sex organs produce the sex
cells (egg/sperm) and sex hormones.
• The accessory sex organs are all the
components involved in maintaining the sex
cell and assisting in the process of
fertilization.
 I. The Male
Reproductive System
• I. The Male Reproductive System:
A. SCROTUM:
• a sac located outside of the abdominal
cavity,
• made up of a thin layer of smooth and
skeletal muscle and skin.
• divided into left and right by a septum to
form different compartments for the testicles.
• keeps the testicles outside the body so they
can be 3 degrees cooler than normal core
temperature.
• In cooler conditions, contract to bring the
testicles closer to the body.
• In warm conditions, relax to allow the skin
to stretch and maximize cooling
B. TESTES:
• surrounded by a fibrous capsule and
partially enclosed by a serous membrane
• fibrous capsule divides the testicles into
wedge-like compartments called lobules
that are filled with seminiferous tubules.
• They are innervated by an abundant
visceral sensory nerves that make them
very sensitive to pain.
• The high sensitivity serves for protection
and in sexual arousal.
SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES:

• consist of a thick stratified epithelium

• Stage 1:
Formation of
Spermatocytes

• Stage 2: Meiosis

• Stage 3:
Spermiogenesis
• SPERMATOGENESIS: SPERM
FORMATION
• Stage 1: Formation of
Spermatocytes
• spermatogonia divide by
mitosis to produce two daughter
cells, one remains in the germ
line (to continue regeneration of
more spermatogonia) and the
other one goes on to become
sperm.
• SPERMATOGENESIS:
SPERM FORMATION
• Stage 2: Meiosis:
• takes the daughter cell type B
through two rounds of division.
At the end four genetically
distinctive cells (spermatids)
are created which will each
mature into a sperm.
• SPERMATOGENESIS: SPERM
FORMATION
• Stage 3: Spermiogenesis:
Spermatids mature into sperm,
the cell develops a long flagella,
a mid piece with high
mitochondria count, and a “head”
filled with DNA= the nucleus. At
the tip of the head lies a sac filled
with digestive enzymes called the
acrosome
OTHER CELLS IN THE TESTICLES
• assisting the sperm cells to mature
and exit the scrotum (referred to as
nurse cells),
• produce male androgen (like
testosterone),
• muscular cells that cause tiny
contractions to push the sperm out
of the testes
C. Reproductive duct system
in males: tubules through which
sperm travel to exit the body.

• 1. Epididymis
• 2. Ductus deferens
• 3. Spermatic cords
• 4. Urethra
• 1. EPIDIDYMIS:
• organ that arches over the posterior
lateral side of the testis.
• If uncoiled, it can be as long as
6meters or 20 feet
• Sperm stays here for twenty days to
complete maturation and gain the
ability to swim and fertilize.
• During ejaculation smooth muscle
contracts to send mature sperm to the
ductus deferens.
2. DUCTUS DEFERENS
• AKA vas deferens
• runs superior to the testicles,
enters the abdominopelvic cavity,
runs posterior to the bladder,
passes by the seminal vesicle,
form the ampulla
3. SPERMATIC CORDS:
• a tube of fascia holding blood
vessels, nerves, and the
ductus deferens.
• 4. URETHRA
• passageway for both sperm and
urine; divided into:
• a. prostatic urethra (section
passing through prostrate gland),
• b. membranous urethra (urogenital
diaphragm)
• c. spongy (penile) urethra Urethral
glands along the spongy urethra
secrete a lubricating solution before
ejaculation.
• D. Accessory glands:
• secretions in addition to sperm
forming semen that increases
the chances of sperm
survival once it is outside the
body.
• 1. Seminal vesicles:
• 2. Prostate gland:
• 3. Bulbourethral glands:
• 1. SEMINAL VESICLES:
• paired glands located posterior to
the bladder that secrete fluid
containing:
• fructose (sugar), nutrients,
• prostagladins to stimulate the
urethra to contract,
• substances that suppress the
immune system against sperm in
females,
• enzymes the enhance sperm
mobility, and thicken the ejaculate.
2. PROSTATE GLAND:
• the size of a chestnut,
• secretes milky white fluid
that has substances to
enhance sperm mobility and
thicken ejaculate.
• susceptible to tumors and
sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs).
3. BULBOURETHRAL
GLANDS:
secrete a mucus substances
that lubricates and neutralizes
the acid from urine in the male
urethra.
E. Penis:
• Designed to deliver semen into
the female reproductive tract.
• Skin around the glans penis is
called prepuce (foreskin)
• contains erectile bodies:
• a. corpora spongiosum,
• b. corpora cavernosa, and
• c. others consisting of smooth
muscle and connective tissue.
E. Penis:
• surrounded by a high amount of blood
vessels that dilate during arousal and
engorge the spongy tissues with blood.
• The veins that normally drain the penis
are pressured shut by the expanding
spongy tissue.
• The parasymphatetic branch causes the
penis to become erect by stimulating
vasodilation.
• The symphathetic branch cause
ejaculation by stimulating contraction of
smooth muscle along the reproductive
tract.
 II. The Female
Reproductive System
II. The Female Reproductive System
• II. The Female Reproductive System:
• produce the ova (eggs) and sex
hormones,
• provide an environment for internal
fertilization and development of the fetus
• undergo changes according to the
menstrual cycle.
• Mammary glands are considered part of
this system because they nourish the
infant.
• A. THE OVARIES
• About the size of an almond
• paired organ suspended by
mesenteries and ligaments.
• surrounded by a fibrous capsule
and can be divided into a cortex
(houses the developing ova) and
medulla (holds vascular tissue)
• site of oogenesis and female sex
hormone production. estrogen and
progesterone.
• A. THE OVARIES
• It responds to follicle-stimulating
hormone that signals the
maturation of an ovum.
• Typically only one egg is released
from an ovary every month, the
ovaries alternate in releasing the
egg.
• Every time an egg is released the
ovaries become scarred.
• 1. OVARIAN CYCLE:
• concerns the changes in the
ovary during the menstrual
cycle.
• Females are born with all the
potential ova (primordial
follicles) they can produce in a
life time.
• These cells respond to FSH and
being the maturation of an
oocyte.
• A. FOLLICULAR PHASE:
• first two weeks of the menstrual
cycle where one follicle matures up
until the stage when the ovary is able
to release an oocyte.
• Other primordial follicles may get
activated but die out along the way.
The primordial follicle becomes the
primary follicle and continues to
develop until it becomes the
vesicular follicle. At this point the
oocyte is surrounded by follicle cells
that the form a fluid-filled cavity.
• B. OVULATION (MIDPOINT)
PHASE:
• LH is released to signal the follicle
to rupture and release the oocyte
from the ovary.
• The ovum is surrounded by a group
of cells that continue to nourish it,
they are called the corona radiata.
• When the egg cell is released it
enters the peritoneal cavity but is
swept into the fallopian/uterine
tubes by fimbriae.
• C. LUTEAL PHASE:
• after ovulation and during
the last two weeks of the
cycle, the follicle that held the
oocyte becomes the corpus
luteum which releases
progesterone. If no
implantation occurs it becomes
the corpus albicans (now
scar tissue).
• 2. OOGENESIS:
• while in men spermatogenesis happens in
about a month, in females oogenesis takes
several years.
• During fetal development oocytes undergo
meiosis I but do not complete it; at this
point they are called primary oocytes.
• At ovulation the primary oocyte completes
meiosis I and begins meiosis II which is
completed only if fertilization occurs. At
the completion of meiosis II the oocyte is
called an ovum.
• B. UTERINE TUBES
• AKA fallopian tubes
• take the oocyte and provide a site
for fertilization
• lined with ciliated epithelium that
gently guides the oocyte towards
the uterus; peristaltic waves
caused by smooth muscle
contraction to aid the movement
of the oocyte.
• B. UTERINE TUBES
• There are also non-ciliated cells
that nourish the oocyte or embryo
on its way to the uterus.
• Sometimes, a fertilized egg can
implant in a uterine tube and
cause a life threatening ectopic
pregnancy.
Uterine Tube Histology
• C. THE UTERUS
• a thick muscular pouch about the
size of a pear that lies in the pelvic
cavity superior to the bladder.
• receives an embryo and provide an
environment for its development
• When there is no pregnancy the
cavity within the uterus is small.
• During pregnancy it stretches to
accommodate the growth of the
fetus.
• C. THE UTERUS
• The opening of the uterus is at the
cervix, during child birth it dilates to
allow the child to pass by.
• The cervix tissue may become
infected by a virus called HPV
(human papilloma virus). It can
cause abnormal tissue growth
including cervical cancer. The
purpose of Pap-smears is to check
the cervical tissue for abnormal
growth.
• UTERINE WALL
• composed of three layers:
• a. perimetrium (outer= serous
membrane),
• b. myometrium (middle= layers of
smooth muscle), and
• c. endometrium (inner= simple
columnar epithelium).
• The thick layer called stratum
functionalis (above myometrium)
undergoes most of the changes
during the uterine cycle.
• 3. UTERINE CYCLE:
• AKA menstrual cycle
• relates to changes occurring in the
endometrium of the uterus that are induced
by female sex hormones.
• A. MENSTRUAL PHASE
• (days 1-5) during this phase the
endometrium is shed
B. PROLIFERATIVE PHASE:
• (days 6-14) during this phase the
endometrium builds a new stratum
functionalis as it responds to rising estrogen
levels. As the layer thickens glands release a
clear sticky mucus secretion that assist the
sperm in finding the egg.
C. SECRETORY PHASE:
• (days 15-28) during this point the
stratum functionalis is highly
vascularized and there is secretion of
glycoproteins to support a developing
embryo in case fertilization occur.
• These are responses to progesterone
released by the corpus luteum in the
ovary.
• If there is no fertilization the
progesterone levels drop signaling
changes that cause death of the stratum
functionalis.
• D. THE VAGINA
• AKA birth canal
• opening that leads into the cervix and
is located anterior to the anus but
posterior to the clitoris and urethral
opening.
• site where sperm is deposited.
• D. THE VAGINA
• very flexible and composed of three
layers:
• a. adventitia,
• b. muscularis,
• c. mucosa (secretes glycogen to
maintain healthy beneficial bacteria
that produce lactic acid)
• has ruggae to stimulate the penis
during intercourse and stretch out
during childbirth.
• E. External genitalia
• AKA vulva and often incorrectly
referred to as the vagina; includes:
• a. mons pubis (fatty rounded pad
over the pubic symphysis),
• b. labia majora (thick skin fold
analogous to the scrotum),
• c. clitoris (erectile tissue
analogous to the penis)
• E. External genitalia
• d. vestibule associated
structures( the vaginal and
urethral orifice and vestibule
glands); protected by the mucus
membrane sheathes called the
labia minora.
• F. Mammary glands:
• modified sweat glands that are active in
pregnant females to produce milk for the
infant.
• When females reach puberty the ducts grow
but the glands do not fully develop; the mass
of the breast is mostly adipose.
• During pregnancy glandular alveoli form and
produce milk shortly after childbirth.
• The breast include the nipple and the
areola (ring around nipple).
• consist of lobes that drain into the nipple by
lactiferous ducts and lactiferous sinuses
where milk accumulates during
breastfeeling.
III. Pregnancy and
Childbirth
III. Pregnancy and Childbirth:
• A. Pregnancy
• occurs once an egg is
successfully fertilized and
successfully implants.
• 1. EVENTS LEADING TO
FERTILIZATION:
• Sperm swims from the vagina
through the cervix, through the
uterine wall until it reaches the
oocyte in the uterine tubes.
• When burrows into the zona
pellucida of the oocyte enzymes
digest it way to allow the sperm to
reach the egg. The plasma
membranes fuse and sperm nucleus
enters the oocyte’s cytoplasm.
• 1. EVENTS LEADING TO
FERTILIZATION:
• This initiates the cortical reaction in
which the egg destroys other sperm
receptors so no other sperm binds
and fertilizes the egg. When the
male and female chromosomes
come together fertilization has been
completed and the zygote will begin
to divide. Once it is large enough and
has formed a blastocyst it enters the
uterus to implant.
•2. IMPLANTATION
•Six days after fertilization the
blastocyst implants as it burrows into
the endometrium. At this point some
cells will become the developing
embryo and some the placenta. As
the trophoblast burrow into the
endometrium it causes bleeding
(about 10-12 days after fertilization).
• 3. FORMATION OF THE
PLACENTA:
• The embryonic tissues from finger like
projection called chorionic villi that
come in contact with the area of the
bleeding endometrium (lacunae) and
the embryo connect to the chorionic
villi via the body stalk which will
become the future umbilical cord.
• 3. FORMATION OF THE PLACENTA:
• By the end of the first month the
embryo’s blood is in close contact with
the mother’s blood and exchange of
nutrients and waste is happening at the
chorionic villi. At the start of the 4th
month the endometrium and the
chorionic villi make a thick disc called
the placenta. This is the site where
nutrient and waste exchange occur.
After childbirth the placenta detaches
from the uterus.
• 4. THE PLACENTA:
• produces hormones such as
progesterone and human
chorionic gandotropin HCG
that keep the placenta attached.
• prevents bacteria from the
mother to transfer to the child,
allows nutrients and antibodies to
flow from mother to child, and the
transfer of waste from child to
mother
• 4. THE PLACENTA:
• Viruses and drugs do cross the
placenta. As soon as one week
after fertilization HCG can be
detected in blood test and two
to three weeks in urine.
• B. Childbirth:
• AKA parturition
• labor is the events prior to
childbirth.
• When the fetus grows so much
that the placenta cannot meet its
nutritional needs stress
hormones are released to signal
the beginning of labor. Oxytocin
and prostaglandins cause the
uterus to contract.
• STAGES OF LABOR:
• a. Dilation stage
• b. Placental stage
• c. Expulsion stage
• STAGES OF LABOR
• a. Dilation stage
• begins when the uterus first contracts and
ends when cervix dilates (10cms)
• Cervical dilation can take 6-12 hours.
• STAGES OF LABOR
• b. Expulsion stage:
• from the time the cervix is fully dilated until
the child leaves the mother’s womb.
• There are strong placental contractions,
this process can take up to 2 hours.
• STAGES OF LABOR
• c. Placental stage:
• uterine contractions discharge the
placenta. The umbilical cord is checked
for the presence of two arteries and one
vein (one indicates a heart disorder).
STDs
 CONTRACEPTION
AND ITS TYPES
• I. Ovulation-suppressing methods- Oral
contraceptives
• II. Barrier methods- Physical (Condom,
Diaphragm, Cervical cap)
• III. Chemical- Spermicidal jelly and foam
• IV. Surgical methods- Vasectomy and Tubal
ligation
• V. Implantation-suppressing methods- IUD
and Morning-after pill
• VI. Others: Abstinence