File Permissions and Ownership:

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chmod: Changes file or directory permissions.
The chmod (change mode) command in Unix/Linux is used to change the file or
directory permissions.
Permissions control who can read, write, or execute a file or directory. Here's how
to use chmod effectively:

Basic File Permissions in Unix/Linux

Each file and directory has three types of permissions:

Read (r) – Allows reading the file or listing the directory contents.
Write (w) – Allows modifying the file or adding/removing files in a directory.
Execute (x) – Allows running the file (if it's a script or program) or entering the
directory.

1. Viewing File Permissions

Before changing permissions, you can view the current permissions using the ls -l
command:

ls -l filename

Output:
-rwxr-xr-- 1 user group 1234 Sep 19 12:00 filename

This means:
Owner (u): rwx (read, write, execute)
Group (g): r-x (read, execute)
Others (o): r-- (read only)

2. Changing Permissions Using Numeric (Octal) Mode

In this mode, permissions are represented by numbers:

4 = Read (r)
2 = Write (w)
1 = Execute (x)
0 = No permission (-)
To set permissions, you sum the values for each category (user, group,
others):

7 = Read (4) + Write (2) + Execute (1) = rwx

6 = Read (4) + Write (2) = rw-
5 = Read (4) + Execute (1) = r-x
4 = Read (4) = r--

Example:

chmod 755 filename

This sets:
Owner: 7 (rwx)
Group: 5 (r-x)
Others: 5 (r-x)

2. Changing Permissions Using Symbolic Mode

In symbolic mode, you modify permissions by specifying the category (u, g, o), the
operation (+, -, =), and the permission (r, w, x).

+ to add permission
- to remove permission
= to set exact permission
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chown
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chgrp
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Monitoring System Resources:

top:
Displays real-time system processes and resource usage (CPU, memory).

1. Change Update Interval (-d):

Use the -d option to set the delay between updates in seconds.

Example:

top -d 5

This updates the display every 5 seconds.

2. top:

top - 14:03:05 up 10 days, 3:12, 2 users, load average: 0.35, 0.42, 0.45
Tasks: 154 total, 1 running, 153 sleeping, 0 stopped, 0 zombie
%Cpu(s): 3.2 us, 1.5 sy, 0.0 ni, 94.3 id, 0.6 wa, 0.0 hi, 0.4 si, 0.0 st
KiB Mem : 8095636 total, 2039320 free, 2020148 used, 403216 buff/cache
KiB Swap: 2097148 total, 2097148 free, 0 used. 2176200 avail Mem

PID USER PR NI VIRT RES SHR S %CPU %MEM TIME+ COMMAND

1234 root 20 0 162456 10256 2568 S 0.0 0.1 0:00.12 bash
2345 user1 20 0 1048952 134232 84516 S 0.0 1.6 2:23.34 firefox
3456 user2 20 0 456789 34128 19016 R 0.0 0.4 0:01.56 top
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ps

1. ps aux

Displays a detailed list of all running processes.

a: Show processes for all users.
u: Show process details including the user and CPU/memory usage.
x: Show processes not attached to a terminal.

USER PID %CPU %MEM VSZ RSS TTY STAT START TIME COMMAND
root 1 0.0 0.1 22564 1860 ? Ss Sep01 0:00 /sbin/init
user1 2345 5.2 1.6 1048952 134232 ? Sl Sep15 25:36
/usr/lib/firefox/firefox
user2 3456 0.0 0.4 456789 34128 pts/0 R+ 14:30 0:01 ps aux
---------

2. ps -e or ps -A:

Shows all processes in a simple format.

e or A: Show all processes
 ps -e

PID TTY TIME CMD

1 ? 00:00:00 init
2345 ? 25:36:54 firefox
3456 pts/0 00:01:00 ps
-------

3. ps -u <username>:

Shows processes for a specific user.

-u <username>: Specify the username to filter processes.

ps -u user1

PID TTY TIME CMD

2345 ? 25:36:54 firefox
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df

1. df: Displays disk space usage for all mounted file systems.

2. df -h: -Displays disk space in a human-readable format (e.g., KB, MB, GB).
-Check if the disk is running out of space.
-Check how much free space available

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du --> Shows disk usage for files and directories (e.g., du -sh to see human-
readable sizes).

1. Shows only the total size of the specified directory in human readable format,
not the size of each subdirectory.

du -sh /path/to/directory

2. Display Disk Usage for All Files and Directories:

du -ah /path/to/directory

3. Display Disk Usage for All Files and Directories in current working directory:

du -h
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free

1. free - free command in Unix/Linux is used to display information about free and
used memory in the system,
including RAM and swap space.
2. -h option makes the output easier to read by using human-friendly units (KB, MB,
GB).

free -h
total used free shared
buff/cache available
Mem: 16Gi 8.1Gi 4.5Gi 1.0Gi 3.4Gi
6.5Gi
Swap: 2.0Gi 0B 2.0Gi
3. -s allows monitoring memory usage at regular intervals, which is useful for
tracking memory over time.

free -s 10
--Display Memory Usage Every 10 Seconds
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uptime

Shows how long the system has been running and the system load averages.

uptime

output:
14:03:05 up 10 days, 3:12, 2 users, load average: 0.35, 0.42, 0.45
----------------------------------------------------------------

iostat
1. it provides detailed information about CPU and I/O device usage,
helping in system performance monitoring and troubleshooting.

iostat
-------------------------------
Linux 5.4.0-42-generic (hostname) 09/19/2024 _x86_64_ (4 CPU)

avg-cpu: %usr %sys %iowait %idle

15.00 10.00 2.00 73.00

Device tps kB_read/s kB_wrtn/s kB_read kB_wrtn

sda 30.00 100.00 50.00 20000 10000
-------------------------------

-x option gives more detailed device statistics, useful for in-depth analysis.

-c focuses on CPU statistics, while -d focuses on I/O device statistics.

$ iostat -c
Linux 5.4.0-42-generic (hostname) 09/19/2024 _x86_64_ (4 CPU)

avg-cpu: %usr%sys %iowait %idle

20.00 10.00 5.00 65.00
-------------------------------
$ iostat -d
Linux 5.4.0-42-generic (hostname) 09/19/2024 _x86_64_ (4 CPU)

Device tps kB_read/s kB_wrtn/s kB_read kB_wrtn

sda 30.00 150.00 75.00 30000 15000
sdb 40.00 200.00 100.00 40000 20000
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Using interval and count allows for real-time monitoring over specified periods.

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vmstat: Displays system performance including memory, CPU, and I/O usage.

$ vmstat
procs -----------memory---------- ---swap-- -----io---- --system-- ----cpu----
 r b swpd free buff cache si so bi bo in cs us sy id wa
1 0 10240 10240 1024 2048 0 0 12 20 100 50 10 5 85 0
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PROCESS MANAGEMENT

kill: Terminates processes by process ID (PID) (e.g., kill -9 <PID>).

The kill command in Unix/Linux is used to terminate processes by sending signals to

them.
The most common use is to stop a process by specifying its Process ID (PID).

1. Terminate a Process Gracefully: kill pid

kill 1234

This sends the default SIGTERM signal to the process with PID 1234.

2. Forcefully Kill a Process: kill -9 pid

kill -9 1234

Forcefully terminates a process. This signal cannot be caught or

ignored by the process.
This will forcefully kill the process with PID 1234.

3. Terminate Multiple Processes:

kill 1234 5678

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killall: The killall command in Unix/Linux is used to terminate processes by name

rather than by Process ID (PID).

1. Terminate All Processes Named firefox:

killall firefox

This sends the default SIGTERM signal to all processes with the name
firefox.

2. Forcefully Kill All Processes Named firefox:

killall -9 firefox
This sends a SIGKILL signal to all processes with the name firefox.

3. Terminate All Processes Named nginx Belonging to User www-data:

killall -u www-data nginx

4. Interactive Mode for Killing Processes Named vim:

killall -i vim

This will prompt for confirmation before killing each vim process.
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nice / renice:

Adjusts the priority of running processes.

nice [options] [command]

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nohup:

Runs a command in the background, allowing it to continue after logging out.

nohup long_running_command &

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ping:

The ping command is a common network utility used to test connectivity between your
computer and a remote host,
such as a server or another device on a network.

It helps determine if a networked device is reachable and measures the round-trip

time for packets sent to and from the host.

ping google.com

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ifconfig: Configures network interfaces.
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netstat

1. Displays all network connections and listening ports.

netstat -a

2. Shows all TCP connections.

netstat -t
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scp: Securely copies files between hosts.

ssh: Connects to a remote machine securely.

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nslookup:

nslookup stands for "name server lookup."

It is used to query DNS to obtain domain name or IP address mapping information.
It provides a simple way to perform DNS queries and is available on most operating
systems.
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who:
Displays information about who is currently logged in.

whoami:
Shows the current user.

useradd, usermod, userdel:

Commands to manage users.

passwd: Changes the user's password.

1.Changing Your Own Password:
passwd
------------------
Changing password for user john.
Current password:
New password:
Retype new password:

2. Changing Another User's Password (as root):

sudo passwd alice
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Enter new UNIX password:
Retype new UNIX password:
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