View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.

uk brought to you by CORE

provided by UNT Digital Library

Saving Water Saves Energy

James E. McMahon, Camilla Dunham Whitehead, Peter Biermayer

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA

Abstract
Hot water use in households, for showers and baths as well as for washing clothes and dishes, is a
major driver of household energy consumption. Other household uses of water (such as irrigating
landscaping) require additional energy in other sectors to transport and treat the water before use,
and to treat wastewater. In California, 19 percent of total electricity for all sectors combined and 32
percent of natural gas consumption is related to water. There is a critical interdependence between
energy and water systems: thermal power plants require cooling water, and water pumping and
treatment require energy.
Energy efficiency can be increased by a number of means, including more-efficient appliances (e.g.,
clothes washers or dishwashers that use less total water and less heated water), water-conserving
plumbing fixtures and fittings (e.g., showerheads, faucets, toilets) and changes in consumer behavior
(e.g., lower temperature set points for storage water heaters, shorter showers). Water- and energy-
conserving activities can help offset the stress imposed on limited water (and energy) supplies from
increasing population in some areas, particularly in drought years, or increased consumption (e.g.,
some new shower systems) as a result of increased wealth.
This paper explores the connections between household water use and energy, and suggests options
for increased efficiencies in both individual technologies and systems. Studies indicate that urban
water use can be reduced cost-effectively by up to 30 percent with commercially available products.
The energy savings associated with water savings may represent a large additional—and largely
untapped—cost-effective opportunity.

Water Withdrawal and Consumption

Unlike energy, water can be reused. That is, after water is used for one purpose, it may be returned
to a water source (such as a river or lake) and then taken again for another use. Removing water
from a water source is known as “withdrawal.” Withdrawn water may be consumed or returned.
“Consumed” water—e.g., water evaporated in cooling towers or evapotranspired from plants—is not
immediately available in liquid phase to be used again. Figure 1 shows the uses for which fresh water
is withdrawn and consumed in the United States; domestic (household) uses account for 8 percent of
withdrawals and 5 percent of consumption. Withdrawals are dominated by cooling water for
thermoelectric power plants and by irrigation for agriculture. (These do not include hydropower or
environmental water such as in-stream flows, wild and scenic flows, required outflows, and managed
wetlands water use.)

United States Water Withdraw als by Sector

United States Water Consum ption by Sector
Public Uses and Losees Public Uses and Losees
2% Domestic
Livestock 0% Livestock
Commercial 5% Commercial
2% 1% 3%
1%
Domestic
8% Industrial and M ining
5%
Industrial and M ining
8% Thermoelectric
Irrigation
4%
40%

Thermoelectric
39% Irrigation
82%

Figure 1. Water Withdrawal and Consumption by Sector, United States, 2000. [1]
Water consumption is dominated by agricultural applications (82 percent), followed by residential and
industrial uses (5 percent each). Commercial applications account for another 1 percent. Increasing
system efficiencies in industrial and commercial facilities and increasing end-use efficiencies in all
applications have the potential to reduce water consumption, which in turn reduces energy
consumption. In addition, water—with appropriate attention to quality—can be recycled or reused.
The demand for water, and related energy demands, can be reduced through more efficient
processes, adoption of water- and energy-efficient technologies, and changes in behavior toward
sustainable practices.

Water Consumption in Households

The average household in the United States directly consumes 74 gallons (280 liters) of water per
person per day. [2] Major indoor end uses include toilets, clothes washers, showers, faucets, and
leaks. Outdoor uses—e.g., irrigating the landscape—account for even more water, but are not
discussed further here.

Figure 2a shows a pie chart of household water consumption by end use in the United States. [2]
Figure 2b shows household natural gas consumption by end use and Figure 2c shows household
electricity consumption by end use. [3]

Household Water Consum ption by End Use

Ot her Domest ic Uses

2%
Showers
Faucets 17%
15%

Leaks
14%
Clot hes Washers
21%
Bat hs
2%

Dishwashers
1%
Toilet s
28%

Figure 2a. Household Water Consumption by End Use, United States. [2]
Household Natural Gas Consum ption by End-Use Household Electricity Consum ption by End-Use

Appliances Light ing

Water Heat ing
8% 9%
9%

Space Heat ing

Wat er Heating 10%
24%

Air-Condit ioning
Other 16%
42%
Space Heating
68%

Ref rigerat or
14%

Figures 2b and 2c. Household Site Energy Consumption by End Use for Natural Gas
and Electricity. [3]

As these figures show, a significant share of household energy consumption is associated with water.
Water heating comprises 9 percent of household electricity consumption and 24 percent of household
consumption of natural gas in the United States. The heated water is used by appliances such as
clothes washers and dishwashers, as well as for showers and baths.

In addition to the water directly consumed in households, energy consumption in households

increases the need for water in the energy sector. Since households are responsible for 35 percent of
U.S. electricity consumption, they account for about 14 percent of freshwater withdrawals for
thermoelectric cooling, in addition to the 8 percent of withdrawals consumed for household water
uses, for a total of 22 percent of freshwater withdrawals. Therefore, there is potential for reducing the
stress on water systems by reducing electricity consumption in households.

Efficient Technologies
In the United States, efforts to increase energy efficiency have, in parallel, increased water efficiency,
most notably for clothes washers and toilets. Technologies having a range of efficiencies are
commercially available. Studies in California, where significant efficiency gains already have been
made, indicate that urban water consumption could be reduced by at least an additional 30 percent,
using technologies that are already commercially available and cost-effective. [4]

Clothes Washers

The National Appliance Energy Conservation Act of 1987 (NAECA) established mandatory energy
performance standards for clothes washers in the United States, effective in 1988. [5] Subsequent
updates established progressively more stringent standards, effective in 1994, 2004, and 2007. [6]
The mandatory standards are expressed as a modified energy factor (MEF) in cycles per kWh per
cubic foot of tub volume. MEF includes both washer and dryer energy, to account for the spin speed
of the washer. In 2004, the mandatory MEF was 1.04, while the voluntary Energy Star level was 1.42.
Clothes washers commercially available in the United States have MEFs ranging from 1.04 to 2.79
and water factors ranging from 12.9 to 3.5. [7] In 2007, the mandatory MEF will be 1.26, while the
voluntary Energy Star level will be 1.72, with a water factor of 8.0 gallons per cubic foot.

Figure 3 shows the relationship between increased energy efficiency and energy and water savings.
[8] Most of the energy savings are achieved by reducing the amount of hot water used. Clothes
washers with both a high energy efficiency and high water efficiency (low water factor) use less hot
water and less total water. However, there is not a direct correlation of energy efficiency to water
efficiency; some clothes washers with higher energy efficiency may have lower water efficiency (i.e., a
higher water factor), saving energy by using larger quantities of cold water.

The State of California originally established energy performance standards for clothes washers,
which were superseded by the national standards. In 2006, California proposed water efficiency
standards for clothes washers and has petitioned the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) to allow the
state to adopt them.[9] Pending DOE’s approval, the State of California adopted water efficiency
standards, effective in 2007, with a maximum water factor of 8.5 gallons per cubic foot (of tub
volume); effective in 2010, the maximum water factor will be 6.0 gallons per cubic foot.[10]
 80%

Vertical-Axis Horizontal-Axis
70%

66.90%
60%
Percent Reduction

50%
Washer Energy
Water
46.3%
40% Dryer Energy

30%
30.70%

20%

10.30%
10%
11.20%

4.20%
0%
5% 10% 15% 20% 21.4% 25% 35% 35.2% 40% 45% 50%
Standard Level in Percent Lower than Baseline

Figure 3: Energy and Water Savings for Clothes Washers for Various Changes in Modified
Energy Factor [8]

Dishwashers

NAECA established mandatory energy performance standards for dishwashers, effective in 1988, for
the United States.[5] Subsequent updates established more stringent standards, effective in 1994,
with an energy factor (EF) of 0.62 and 0.46 cycles per kWh for compact and standard dishwashers,
respectively.[11] In 2004, the voluntary Energy Star level was 0.58 cycles/kWh for standard
dishwashers; no level has been established for compacts. Dishwashers commercially available in the
United States have EFs ranging from 0.46 (the minimum required) to 1.11.

In 2003, the DOE test procedure for dishwashers was updated to account for soil-sensing models and
changes in the number of cycles per year, and to require the measurement of standby power
consumption in annual energy use or operating cost calculations. [12]

Showerheads

The Energy Policy Act of 1992 established mandatory performance standards for showerheads,
faucets, water closets (toilets), and urinals, effective in 1994 for the United States. The mandatory
standards require showerheads to have water flow no greater than 2.5 gallons per minute (gpm) at 80
psig. Prior to 1992, some showerheads had flow rates of 5.5 gpm.

Showerheads commercially available in the United States have flow rates ranging from 0.94 to 2.5
gpm [13] or more. California called attention to the issue of whether some current products are
above the standard. Recent testing by the California Energy Commission found showerheads that
had flow rates of up to 13 gpm.[14] Recent trends include installations of multiple showerheads in
new construction—an estimated 3–6 percent of new households [15]—as well as in existing showers.
Some of these shower systems with multiple sprays from different directions are designed to provide
a therapeutic function, rather than a cleaning function, and may thus increase the duration of a
shower.
Toilets

The mandatory standards established by the Energy Policy Act of 1992 require toilets (termed “water
closets” in the Act) to have flow rates no greater than 1.6 gallons (6.0 liters) per flush, compared to
previous designs using 3.5 gallons. Toilets commercially available in the United States have flow
rates ranging from 0.8 gallons (“short flush” in dual flush models) to 1.6 gallons. The California Urban
Water Conservation Council reports maximum performance testing by model to identify the best
performing designs.[16]

Energy Used to Supply, Treat, and Dispose of Water

Water consumption requires large amounts of energy for three main purposes: water supply, water
heating, and wastewater disposal. As an illustration, the California Energy Commission conducted a
preliminary analysis of energy consumption by the water and wastewater sector and found that 19
percent of statewide electricity and 32 percent of natural gas consumption was related to water.[17]
These estimates included water conveyance, treatment, distribution, and water heating (in residential,
commercial, and industrial sectors); wastewater treatment, collection, and discharge; and treatment
and distribution of recycled water. The amount of energy varied significantly, depending on the
amount of pumping required in conveyance and the amount of treatment required as a function of
water quality. Conveyance is a major component of water-related energy use in California, since two-
thirds of the annual precipitation occurs in the northern portion of the state, while two-thirds of the
water demand is in the southern portion. The amount of energy required to provide water to Southern
California is high because the water must be transported over 1000 km via canal and pumped over
the Tehachapi Mountains (a vertical lift of 610 meters).[18]

Reductions in water consumption at the end-use level directly reduce energy consumption required
for supplying and heating water, and for disposing of wastewater. An important recent finding is that
large energy savings are not only available but may be more cost-effective from water efficiency
measures than had been identified in California’s electricity savings plans. Table 1 shows a
comparison of three estimates of savings in California: a) electricity savings achieved in 2004–2005;
b) planned electricity savings in 2006–2008; and c) potential electricity savings from newly identified
water savings opportunities. Preliminary calculations suggest that the goals that are being pursued in
current electricity-savings plans could have been achieved at lower cost by saving water instead.
This suggestion does not imply that the electricity savings programs are deficient, but rather that an
additional, large, untapped potential for energy savings exists by saving water.

Table 1. Water Use Efficiency Potential Compared to Energy Efficiency Programs in California

Energy Efficiency Procurement by Water Use

Investor-Owned Utilities Efficiency Potential
2004-2005 2006-2008
(projected)
GWh (Annualized) 2 745 6 812 6 500
Peak MW 690 1 417 850
Funding ($ Million) $762 $1 500 $826
$/Annual KWh $0.28 $0.22 $0.13
Cost of Electricity Saved 46% 58% 100%
from Water Efficiency as
percent of Cost of
Procurement of Electricity
Efficiency (Ratio of
respective $/Annual
KWh)
California Energy Commission (CEC-700-2005-011-SF), Table 4-2 [19]
Future Trends
Supplies of potable freshwater are a finite resource. Future trends in water (and related energy use)
may depend on such factors as population growth and demographic trends, climate change,
technological changes, and policies.

Population Growth and Demographic Shifts

Demand for potable water is expected to increase as a result of population growth. In addition, the
demographic trend in the United States is toward the south and west—toward warmer regions with
more restricted freshwater supplies.

Climate Change

Historical records over the last few centuries provide sufficient basis for planning for periodic
droughts. Climate change has the potential to make future precipitation patterns depart from the
recent historical record, and perhaps to increase the frequency and severity of droughts.

Technological Change

Since most freshwater supplies have already been identified, technologies are focused in two
directions: a) more efficient use of water; and b) treatment of brackish water, seawater, or other
impaired water to make it useable. For those end uses that use both energy and water, such as
clothes washers, dishwashers, and showerheads, new technologies that reduce hot water
consumption will save both water and energy. For those end uses that use cold water, such as
toilets, increases in water efficiency will directly save water and indirectly save the energy used to
supply and dispose of water.

Some proposed technological solutions to increase the supply of potable water have the potential to
significantly increase energy consumption. Current methods for removing salt from brackish water or
seawater increase the energy required for water supply by factors of two to five. In such situations,
joint planning of both energy and water systems will be essential to avoid unintended and possibly
unacceptable consequences.

In addition to attention to specific technologies, such as those used for end uses such as clothes
washers, systems analyses will be needed, with particular attention to recycling or reusing water.
Possibilities include dual systems and distributed treatment. A dual system would involve providing a
household or business with two water systems—one for potable water and one for “gray” water for
uses that do not require potable water, such as irrigation of the landscape. Depending on the scale of
the technology developed, distributed treatment may involve treating wastewater at the household or
neighborhood level, rather than at central municipal facilities.

Policies and Programs

Water is essential to life and health and is also, in some applications, a commodity. Establishing an
economic value for water is complex, and includes long-term considerations of sustainability as well
as short-term desires by some to establish markets. Laws about ownership of and rights to water are
complex and vary among jurisdictions. Responsibilities for various aspects of water supply, water
quality, and wastewater reside in a large number of government agencies and institutions. For
example, agencies dealing with health, agriculture, and environmental issues are involved at several
levels of government, from national to local. In the United States, the number of utilities is much
greater for water than for electricity.

Information about water consumption by end uses is not always available. Efforts similar to those
expended over the last thirty years to understand and reduce energy consumption are necessary for
water. Voluntary programs to improve efficiency and reduce consumption need reliable information in
order to establish goals and track progress. Incentive programs, whether tax credits to manufacturers
or rebates to consumers, can in some ways be modeled after experiences in the energy sector. In
some cases, as with clothes washers, considering the combined energy and water savings rather
than considering each resource separately will justify greater efficiency improvements. For example,
both energy and water utilities offer rebates for clothes washers, and some voluntary and mandatory
standards for these products have considered both energy and water efficiency.

Conclusions
Households account for about 8 percent of freshwater withdrawals and 5 percent of water
consumption in the United States. Household uses of water include bathing or showering, washing
clothes or dishes, irrigating landscape, cooking, and drinking. Energy use and water use are related,
since energy is required to supply potable water and to heat water for washing and other applications.
Conserving water or using water more efficiently reduces energy consumption. Since freshwater
withdrawals to cool thermal electricity generating plants represent about 39 percent of total
withdrawals, and household electricity consumption is 35 percent of the U.S. total, about 14 percent of
freshwater withdrawals can be attributed to household electricity consumption. Combining direct
water uses with electricity use, households account for 22 percent of freshwater withdrawals and
about 6 percent of freshwater consumption.

Opportunities for reducing water consumption include efficient technologies for clothes washers,
dishwashers, toilets, and showerheads. For clothes washers, energy-efficient designs tend to reduce
consumption of hot water as a primary strategy for saving energy. However, some energy-efficient
clothes washers reduce energy consumption by using more cold water. Both voluntary and
mandatory energy-efficiency standards can be complemented by water efficiency requirements in the
form of water factors. Some studies indicate that, in California, where a number of efficiency
measures are already in place, an additional 30 percent reduction in household water consumption is
cost-effective and available now from commercially available products.

A preliminary estimate of the cost of energy saved from more-efficient water use indicates that a
significant reservoir of energy savings may be available at a lower cost per kWh than current energy
efficiency procurement programs in California.

References
[1] United States Geographical Survey. United States Water Consumption 2000. February 6, 2006.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2004/circ1268/htdocs/table14.html

[2] American Water Works Association, Stats on Tap, Consumption and Conservation. February
6, 2006. http://www.awwa.org/advocacy/pressroom/statswp5.cfm

[3] United States Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Residential Energy
Consumption Survey, 2001. (http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs/recs2001/detailcetbls.html)

[4] Gleick P.H., Cooley H., Groves D. California Water 2030: An Efficient Future, Pacific Institute,
Oakland, California, 2006.

[5] National Appliance Energy Conservation Act of 1987 (NAECA) (42 U.S.C. 6291)

[6] U.S. Department of Energy-Offiice of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Energy
Conservation Program for Consumer Products: Clothes Washer Energy Conservation
Standards; Final Rule.. Federal Register, Volume 66, No. 9, 12 January 2001

[7] http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?fuseaction=clotheswash.display_products_excel,
6 March, 2006.

[8] U.S. Department of Energy, Final Rule Technical Support Document (TSD): Energy efficiency
standards for consumer products: Clothes Washers, January 2001 (or Biermayer P., McMahon
J. and Berringer B., LBNL-47462)

[9] U.S. Department of Energy-Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Energy
Efficiency Program for Consumer Products: California Energy Commission Petition of
Exemption from Federal Preemption of California’s Water Conservation Standards for
 Residential clothes Washers Federal Register, Vol. 71, No. 24, 6 February 2006.
<Http://www.energy.ca.gov/appliances/2005-09-13_PETITION_CLOTHES_WASHERS.PDF>

[10] California Energy Commission. Appliance Efficiency Regulations, January 2006, CEC 400-
2006-002. California Code of Regulations, Title 20, Sections 1605.2, January 2006

[11] U.S. Office of the Federal Register. 1991. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10 Part 430
Energy Conservation Pogram for Consumer Products: Final Rule Regarding Energy
Conservation Standards for Three Types of Consumer Products, Vol. 59, No. 93, May 14, 1991
[Docket No. CE-RM-88-101]. Washington D.C.]

[12] U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Conservation Program for Consumer Products: Test
Procedure for Dishwashers, Federal Register, Vol. 68, No. 168, 20 August 2003.

[13] http://www.energy.ca.gov/appliances/appliance/excel_based_files/plumbing/

[14]http://www.awwa.org/Forums/attachments/Showerhead%20Test%20Results%20December%202
005%2Epdf

[15] Biermayer P. Potential Water and Energy Savings from Showerheads, LBNL58601-Revised,
February, 2005.

[16] California Urban Water Conservation Council, 2006. http://www.cuwcc.org/MapTesting.lasso

[17] California Energy Commission, The Water Energy Relationship, Staff Final Report, November,
2005.

[18] Natural Resources Defense Council. Energy Down The Drain: The Hidden Costs of California’s
Water Supply. http://www.nrdc.org/water/conservation/edrain/edrain.pdf

[19] California Energy Commission, California’s Water-Energy Relationship, Staff Final Report.
November, 2005. CEC-700-2005-011-SF