Data and Computer Communications

DATA ENCODING

Introduction

Either form of data can be encoded into either form of signal

Introduction

For DIGITAL SIGNALING, Data source g(t) which may be either digital or analog, is encoded into a digital signal x(t). The actual form of x(t) depends on the encoding technique, and is chosen to optimize use of the transmission medium. For example, the encoding may be chosen to either conserve bandwidth or to minimize errors.

Introduction

The backbone for ANALOG SIGNALING is a continuous, constant-frequency signal known as the CARRIER SIGNAL. The frequency of the carrier signal is chosen to be compatible with the transmission medium being used. Data may be transmitted using a carrier signal by modulation. MODULATION is the process of encoding source data onto a carrier signal with frequency fc. All modulation techniques involve operation on one or more of the three fundamental frequency-domain parameters: The input signal m(t) may be analog or digital and is called Amplitude the MODULATING SIGNAL or BASEBAND SIGNAL. Frequency The result of modulating the carrier signal is called the MODULATED SIGNAL. Phase The location of the bandwidth on the spectrum is related to fc and is often centered on fc. Again, the actual form of the encoding is chosen to optimize some characteristic of the transmission.

Introduction
DIGITAL DATA DIGITAL SIGNAL
Equipment for encoding is less complex and less expensive compared to digital-to-analog modulation equipment

ANALOG DATA DIGITAL SIGNAL

Conversion of analog data to digital form permits the use of modern digital transmission and switching equipment. Advantages of using the digital approach are summarized by the following: Digital Technology-Data Integrity-Capacity Utilization-Security and Privacy-Integration

DIGITAL DATA ANALOG SIGNAL

Some transmission media such as optical fiber and the unguided media will only propagate analog signal

ANALOG DATA ANALOG SIGNAL

Analog data in electrical form can be transmitted as baseband signals easily and cheaply by voice transmission over voice-grade lines. One common use of modulation is to shift the bandwidth of a baseband signal to another portion of the spectrum. In this way, multiple signals, each at a different position on the spectrum, can share the same transmission medium; this is known as FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING.

Digital Data, Digital Signal

Digital Signal
DIGITAL SIGNAL
Sequence of discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses Each pulse is a SIGNAL ELEMENT Binary data are encoded into signal elements Simplest case has one-to-one correspondence

Definition of Terms
Unipolar: signal elements all have the same algebraic sign (all + or all -) Polar: one logic state is represented by a positive voltage level, and the other by a negative voltage level Data Signaling Rate or Data Rate: rate in bits per second that data is transmitted (R) Duration or length of a bit: amount of time it takes for the transmitter to emit the bit (1/R) Modulation/Signaling Rate: rate at which the signal level is changed, this will depend on the nature of digital encoding and is expressed in BAUD (signal elements per second) Mark and Space: refer to binary digit 1 and 0

Interpreting Signals
Need to Know Timing of bits - when they start and end Signal levels An increase in data rate Factors Affecting Signal increases bit error rate (the Interpretation probability that a bit is received SNR or Eb/No in error). Data Rate An increase in SNR decreases Bandwidth bit error rate. Encoding Scheme

An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data rate.

Ways of Evaluating Encoding Schemes

Signal Spectrum
Lack of HF component reduces W requirement Lack of DC is desirable because ac-coupling via transformer is possible thus providing excellent electrical isolation and reduction of interference Good signal design should concentrate the transmitted power in the middle of the transmission W

Clocking
Expensive approach is to provide a separate clock-lead to synch the TX and RX and the alternative is to provide some synch mechanism that is based on the encoding scheme of the transmitted signal

Ways of Evaluating Encoding Schemes

Error Detection
Responsibility of the DATA LINK CONTROL Useful to have some error-detection capability built into the physical signaling-encoding scheme permitting errors to be detected more quickly

Signal Interference and Noise Immunity

Certain codes exhibit superior performance in the presence of noise This ability is usually expressed in terms of a BIT ERROR RATE

Cost and Complexity

The higher the signaling rate to achieve a given data rate, the greater the cost Some codes require a signaling rate that is greater than the actual data rate

Digital Signal Encoding Formats

Digital Signal Encoding Formats

NRZ NRZ-L and NRZI Advantage: Easy to engineer Makes efficient use of W Disadvantage: Presence of DC component Lack of synchronization Differential Encoding NRZI and Differential Manchester The signal is decoded by comparing the polarity of adjacent signal elements rather than determining the absolute value of a signal element Advantage: more reliable to detect a transition in the presence of noise than to compare a value to a threshold Disadvantage: Presence of DC component Lack of synchronization

Digital Signal Encoding Formats

Multilevel Binary Bipolar-AMI and Pseudoternary Advantage: No loss of synchronization on long strings of 1s (B-AMI) or 0s (Pseudoternary) No net DC component Less W compared to NRZ Pulse alternation provides some means of error detection Disadvantage: Receiver needs to distinguish between 3 levels instead of 2 Needs higher signal power for the same level of bit error rate Biphase Manchester and Differential Manchester Midbit transition Advantage: No net DC component Synchronization Error detection (absence of midbit transition) Disadvantage: W is considerably greater since modulation rate is 2x the data rate

Modulation/Signaling Rate vs Data Rate

Data rate (expressed in bits per second) Modulation rate (expressed in baud). The data rate, or bit rate, is l/tB, where tB = bit duration. The modulation rate is the rate at which signal elements are generated.

D = R / N = R /log2M

D = modulation rate, baud R = data rate, bps N = number of bits per signaling element M = number of discrete signal

Scrambling

Process of replacing sequences that would produce a long string of constant voltage that could result to loss of synchronization These filling sequences must:
produce enough transitions to sync be recognized by receiver & replaced with original be same length as original

Design Goals:
no dc component no long sequences of zero level line signal no reduction in data rate give error detection capability

B8ZS and HDB3

B8ZS (bipolar with 8-zeros substitution) Common in North America Based in Bipolar-AMI (drawback is on long strings of 0) This technique forces two code violations (signal patterns not allowed in AMI) of the AM1 code, an event unlikely to be caused by noise or other transmission impairment. The receiver recognizes the pattern and interprets the octet as consisting of all zeros. HDB3 (high-density bipolar-3 zeros) Common in Europe and Japan Based in Bipolar-AMI (drawback is on long strings of 0) In this case, the scheme replaces strings of four zeros with sequences containing one or two pulses. In each case, the fourth zero is replaced with a code violation. In addition, a rule is needed to ensure that successive violations are of alternate polarity so that no dc component is introduced. Thus, if the last violation was positive, this violation must be negative, and vice versa. -

B8ZS and HDB3

Seatwork (20min)
Encode the following bit stream using (+) pulse = 5V and (-) pulse = -5V NRZ-L NRZI last pulse prior the bit stream is (+) Bipolar-AMI start with (+) pulse Pseudoternary start with (+) pulse Manchester Differential Manchester last pulse prior the bit stream is low-to-high

1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

Seatwork (20min)
Give the B8ZS equivalent of the ff. bit stream. Start with the (+) pulse. Label the violation.

1110000000011101101000
Give the HDB3 equivalent of the ff. bit stream. Start with the (+) pulse Label the violation and stuffing bit.

1010000011000011000000

Seatwork - Answer

Seatwork - Answer
Give the B8ZS equivalent of the ff. bit stream. Start with the (+) pulse. Label the violation.

Red violation Give the HDB3 equivalent of the ff. bit stream. Start with the (+) pulse Label the violation and stuffing bit.

1110000000011101101000 +-+000+-0-+-+-0+-0+000 1010000011000011000000 +0-000-0+-+00+-+-00-00

Red violation Orange stuffing bit

Digital Data, Analog Signal

Digital Data, Analog Signal

Main use is transmitting data through the public telephone system has freq range of 300Hz to 3400Hz use modem (modulator-demodulator) Modulation involves operation on one or more of the 3 characteristics of the carrier signal. In all these cases the resulting signal occupies the W centered on the carrier frequency Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Phase Shift Keying (PK)

Modulation Techniques
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING
two binary values are represented by two different amplitudes of the carrier frequency The resulting signal is:

FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING

the two binary values are represented by two different frequencies near the carrier frequency The resulting signal is:

PHASE SHIFT KEYING

the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent data The resulting signal is:

Performance of Digital to Analog Modulation Schemes

Bandwidth
ASK/PSK bandwidth directly relates to bit rate Multilevel PSK gives significant improvements

In presence of noise:
Bit error rate of PSK are about 3dB superior to ASK and FSK

Analog Data, Digital Signal

Analog Data, Digital Signal

DIGITIZATION is conversion of analog data into digital data which can then:
1. 2. 3. Be transmitted using NRZ-L. In this case, we have gone directly from analog data to a digital signal. Be encoded as a digital signal using a code other than NRZ-L. Thus, an extra step is required. Be converted into an analog signal, using one of the modulation techniques discussed previously.

Digitizing Analog Data

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Based on the sampling theorem: If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher than twice the highest signal frequency, the samples contain all information in original signal eg. 4000Hz voice data, requires 8000 sample per sec (NOTE: These are analog samples) Samples are represented as narrow pulses whose amplitude is proportional to the value of the original signal PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Based on the sampling theorem: If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher than twice the highest signal frequency, the samples contain all information in original signal eg. 4000Hz voice data, requires 8000 sample per sec (NOTE: These are analog samples) Samples are represented as narrow pulses whose amplitude is proportional to the value of the original signal PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM) PAM data are quantized to produced PCM DATA. The amplitude of each PAM pulse is approximated by an n-bit integer.

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

In the example, n = 3. Thus, 8 = 23 levels are available for approximating the PAM pulses.

Seatwork (10min)
Give the quantized code and the PCM equivalent of the given signal. PAM value is given.

Seatwork - Answer

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

QUANTIZING ERROR The error caused by quantizing the PAM pulse The original signal is now only approximated and cannot be recovered exactly. The signal-to-noise ratio for quantizing noise can be expressed as:

Non-Linear Coding
Quantization levels are not equally spaced. The problem with equal spacing is that the mean absolute error for each sample is the same, regardless of signal level. Consequently, lower amplitude values are relatively more distorted. By using a greater number of quantizing steps for signals of low amplitude, and a smaller number of quantizing steps for signals of large amplitude, a marked reduction in overall signal distortion is achieve.

Companding
The same effect can be achieved by using uniform quantizing but companding (compressing-expanding) the input analog signal. COMPANDING is a process that compresses the intensity range of a signal by imparting more gain to weak signals than to strong signals on input. At output, the reverse operation is performed. Note that the effect on the input side is to compress the sample so that the higher values are reduced with respect to the lower values. ]Thus, with a fixed number of quantizing levels, more levels are available for lower-level signals. On the output side, the compander expands the samples so the compressed values are restored to their original values.

Companding

Delta Modulation
Popular alternative to PCM Analog input is approximated by a staircase function that moves up or down by one quantizing level () at each

sampling interval

Behavior is binary At each sampling time, the function only moves up or down at a constant level Thus, the output can be encoded as a single binary digit for each sample Two Important Parameters 1 for up or 0 for down Size of the step () Sampling size

Delta Modulation Example

The transition (up or down) that occurs at each sampling interval is chosen so that the staircase function tracks the original analog waveform as closely as possible. For transmission, the following occurs: At each sampling time, the analog input is compared to the most recent value of the approximating staircase function. If the value of the sampled waveform exceeds that of the staircase function, a 1 is generated; otherwise, a 0 is generated. The output of the DM process is therefore a binary sequence that can be used at the receiver to reconstruct the staircase function. The staircase function can then be smoothed by some type of integration process or by passing it through a low-pass filter to produce an analog approximation of the analog input signal

PCM verses Delta Modulation

DM has simplicity compared to PCM but has worse SNR PCM preferred to DM for digitizing analog signals that represent digital data

Analog Data, Analog Signal

Analog Data, Analog Signals

Modulation has been defined as the process of combining an input signal m(t) and a carrier at frequency f, to produce a signal s(t) whose bandwidth is (usually) centered on f,. For digital data, the motivation for modulation should be clear: When only analog transmission facilities are available, modulation is required to convert the digital data to analog form. For analog data, the principal reasons for modulation are as follows: A higher frequency may be needed for effective transmission. For unguided transmission, it is virtually impossible to transmit baseband signals. The required antennas would be many kilometers in diameter. Modulation permits frequency-division multiplexing

Analog Modulation Techniques

Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation

END