Binary Logistic Regression

Binary Logistic Regression

The test you choose depends on level of measurement:

Independent Variable Dependent Variable Test

Dichotomous Interval-Ratio Independent Samples t-test
Dichotomous

Nominal Nominal Cross Tabs
Dichotomous Dichotomous

Nominal Interval-Ratio ANOVA
Dichotomous Dichotomous

Interval-Ratio Interval-Ratio Bivariate Regression/Correlation
Dichotomous

Two or More
Interval-Ratio
Dichotomous Interval-Ratio Multiple Regression

Interval-Ratio
Dichotomous Dichotomous Binary Logistic Regression

Binary Logistic Regression
Binary logistic regression is a type of
regression analysis where the dependent
variable is a dummy variable (coded 0, 1)
Why not just use ordinary least squares?
Y = a + bx
You would typically get the correct answers in
terms of the sign and significance of
coefficients
However, there are three problems
^
Binary Logistic Regression
OLS on a dichotomous dependent variable:
Yes = 1
No = 0
X = Income
Y = Support
Privatizing
Social
Security
1 10
Binary Logistic Regression
However, there are three problems
1. The error terms are heteroskedastic (variance of
the dependent variable is different with different
values of the independent variables
2. The error terms are not normally distributed
3. The predicted probabilities can be greater than 1
or less than 0, which can be a problem for
subsequent analysis

Binary Logistic Regression
The logit model solves these problems:
ln[p/(1-p)] = a + BX
or
p/(1-p) = e
a + BX
p/(1-p) = e
a
(e
B
)
X

Where:
ln is the natural logarithm, log
exp
, where e=2.71828
p is the probability that Y for cases equals 1, p (Y=1)
1-p is the probability that Y for cases equals 0,
1 p(Y=1)
p/(1-p) is the odds
ln[p/1-p] is the log odds, or logit

Binary Logistic Regression
Logistic Distribution




Transformed, however,
the log odds are linear.
ln[p/(1-p)]
P (Y=1)
x
x
Binary Logistic Regression
So what are natural logs and exponents?
Ask Dr. Math.
http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/55555.html
ln(x) = y is same as: x = e
y


READ THE ABOVE
LIKE THIS: when you see ln(x) say the
value after the equal sign is the
power to which I need to take e
to get x
so
y is the power to which you
would take e to get x
Binary Logistic Regression
So ln[p/(1-p)] = y is same as: p/(1-p) = e
y


READ THE ABOVE
LIKE THIS: when you see ln[p/(1-P)] say
the value after the equal sign is
the power to which I need to take
e to get p/(1-p)
so
y is the power to which you
would take e to get p/(1-p)
Binary Logistic Regression
So ln[p/(1-p)] = a + bX is same as: p/(1-p) = e
a

+ bX

READ THE ABOVE
LIKE THIS: when you see ln[p/(1-P)] say
the value after the equal sign is
the power to which I need to take
e to get p/(1-p)
so
a + bX is the power to which you
would take e to get p/(1-p)
Binary Logistic Regression
The logistic regression model is simply a
non-linear transformation of the linear
regression.
The logistic distribution is an S-shaped
distribution function (cumulative density
function) which is similar to the standard
normal distribution and constrains the
estimated probabilities to lie between 0
and 1.

Binary Logistic Regression
Logistic Distribution
With the logistic transformation, were fitting
the model to the data better.



Transformed, however, the log odds are
linear.
P(Y = 1) 1
.5
0
X = 0 10 20
Ln[p/(1-p)]
X = 0 10 20
Binary Logistic Regression
Recall that OLS Regression used an ordinary least squares
formula to create the linear model we used.
The Logistic Regression model will be constructed by an iterative
maximum likelihood procedure.
This is a computer dependent program that:
1. starts with arbitrary values of the regression coefficients and constructs
an initial model for predicting the observed data.
2. then evaluates errors in such prediction and changes the regression
coefficients so as make the likelihood of the observed data greater
under the new model.
3. repeats until the model converges, meaning the differences between
the newest model and the previous model are trivial.
The idea is that you find and report as statistics the parameters
that are most likely to have produced your data.
Model and inferential statistics will be different from OLS because
of using this technique and because of the nature of the dependent
variable. (Remember how we used chi-squared with
classification?)
Binary Logistic Regression
Youre likely feeling
overwhelmed, perhaps
anxious about
understanding this.
Dont worry, coherence is
gained when you see
similarity to OLS regression:
1. Model fit
2. Interpreting coefficients
3. Inferential statistics
4. Predicting Y for values of the
independent variables (the
most difficult, but well make it
easy)
Binary Logistic Regression
So in logistic regression, we will take the twisted
concept of a transformed dependent variable equaling
a line and manipulate the equation to untwist the
interpretation.
We will focus on:
1. Model fit
2. Interpreting coefficients
3. Inferential statistics
4. Predicting Y for values of the independent variables (the most
difficult)the prediction of probability, appropriately, will be an
S-shape
Lets start with a research example and SPSS
output

Binary Logistic Regression
A researcher is interested in the likelihood of
gun ownership in the US, and what would
predict that.
He uses the 2002 GSS to test the following
research hypotheses:
1. Men are more likely to own guns than women
2. The older persons are, the more likely they are to
own guns
3. White people are more likely to own guns than
those of other races
4. The more educated persons are, the less likely they
are to own guns
Binary Logistic Regression
Variables are measured as such:
Dependent:
Havegun: no gun = 0, own gun(s) = 1
Independent:
1. Sex: men = 0, women = 1
2. Age: entered as number of years
3. White: all other races = 0, white =1
4. Education: entered as number of years
SPSS: Anyalyze Regression Binary Logistic
Enter your variables and for output below, under
options, I checked iteration history

Binary Logistic Regression
SPSS Output: Some descriptive information first

Binary Logistic Regression
SPSS Output: Some descriptive information first

Maximum likelihood process stops at
third iteration and yields an intercept
(-.625) for a model with no
predictors.
A measure of fit, -2 Log likelihood is
generated. The equation producing
this:
-2((Yi * ln[P(Yi)] + (1-Yi) ln[1-P(Yi)])
This is simply the relationship
between observed values for each
case in your data and the models
prediction for each case. The
negative 2 makes this number
distribute as a X
2
distribution.
In a perfect model, -2 log likelihood
would equal 0. Therefore, lower
numbers imply better model fit.

Binary Logistic Regression
Originally, the best guess for each
person in the data set is 0, have no gun!
This is the model for log
odds when any other
potential variable equals
zero (null model). It
predicts : P = .651, like
above. 1/1+e
a
or 1/1+.535
Real P = .349
If you added
each
Binary Logistic Regression
Next are iterations for our full model
Binary Logistic Regression
Goodness-of-fit statistics for new model come next
Test of new model vs. intercept-
only model (the null model), based
on difference of -2LL of each. The
difference has a X
2
distribution. Is
new -2LL significantly smaller?





The -2LL number is ungrounded, but it has a
2

distribution. Smaller is better. In a perfect model, -2 log
likelihood would equal 0.
These are attempts to
replicate R
2
using information
based on -2 log likelihood,
(C&S cannot equal 1)
-2((Yi * ln[P(Yi)] + (1-Yi) ln[1-P(Yi)])
Assessment of new models
predictions
Binary Logistic Regression
Interpreting Coefficients
ln[p/(1-p)] = a + b
1
X
1
+ b
2
X
2
+ b
3
X
3
+ b
4
X
4

b1
b2
b3
b4
a
Being male, getting older, and being white have a positive effect on likelihood of
owning a gun. On the other hand, education does not affect owning a gun.

Well discuss the Wald test in a moment

X1
X2
X3
X4
1
e
b

Which bs are significant?
ln[p/(1-p)] = a + b
1
X
1
+ +b
k
X
k
, the power to which you
need to take e to get:
P P
1 P So 1 P = e
a +

b1X1++bkXk

Ergo, plug in values of x to get the odds ( = p/1-p).
Binary Logistic Regression
The coefficients can be manipulated as follows:
Odds = p/(1-p) = e
a+b1X1+b2X2+b3X3+b4X4
= e
a
(e
b1
)
X1
(e
b2
)
X2
(e
b3
)
X3
(e
b4
)
X4

Odds = p/(1-p) = e
a+.898X1+.008X2+1.249X3-.056X4
= e
-1.864
(e
.898
)
X1
(e
.008
)
X2
(e
1.249
)
X3
(e
-.056
)
X4

Binary Logistic Regression
The coefficients can be manipulated as follows:
Odds = p/(1-p) = e
a+b1X1+b2X2+b3X3+b4X4
= e
a
(e
b1
)
X1
(e
b2
)
X2
(e
b3
)
X3
(e
b4
)
X4

Odds = p/(1-p) = e
-2.246-.780X1+.020X2+1.618X3-.023X4
= e
-2.246
(e
-.780
)
X1
(e
.020
)
X2
(e
1.618
)
X3
(e
-.023
)
X4



Mrrr, Check it
out!
Each coefficient increases the odds by a multiplicative
amount, the amount is e
b
. Every unit increase in X
increases the odds by e
b
.
In the example above, e
b
= Exp(B) in the last column.

Binary Logistic Regression
Each coefficient increases the odds by a multiplicative amount, the amount is e
b
.
Every unit increase in X increases the odds by e
b
.
In the example above, e
b
= Exp(B) in the last column.
For Sex: e
-.780
= .458 If you subtract 1 from this value, you get the proportion
increase (or decrease) in the odds caused by being male, -.542. In percent terms,
odds of owning a gun decrease 54.2% for women.
Age: e
.020
= 1.020 A year increase in age increases the odds of owning a gun 2%.
White: e
1.618
= 5.044 Being white increases the odd of owning a gun by 404%
Educ: e
-.023
= .977 Not significant
Binary Logistic Regression
Age: e
.020
= 1.020 A year increase in age increases the odds of owning a gun 2%.
How would 10 years increase in age affect the odds? Recall (e
b
)
X
is the equation component
for a variable. For 10 years, (1.020)
10
= 1.219. The odds jump by 22% for ten years increase
in age.
Note: Youd have to know the current prediction level for the dependent variable to know if this
percent change is actually making a big difference or not!
Binary Logistic Regression
Note: Youd have to know the current prediction level for the dependent variable to
know if this percent change is actually making a big difference or not!
Recall that the logistic regression tells us two things at once.
Transformed, the log odds are linear.




Logistic Distribution

ln[p/(1-p)]
P (Y=1)
x
x
Binary Logistic Regression
We can also get p(y=1) for particular folks.
Odds = p/(1-p); p = P(Y=1)
With algebra
Odds(1-p) = p Odds-p(odds) = p
Odds = p+p(odds) Odds = p(1+odds)
Odds/1+odds = p or
p = Odds/(1+odds)
Ln(odds) = a + bx and odds = e
a + bx

so
P = e
a+bX
/(1+ e
a+bX
)
We can therefore plug in numbers for X to get P
If a + BX = 0, then p = .5 As a + BX gets really big, p approaches 1
As a + BX gets really small, p approaches 0 (our model is an S curve)
Binary Logistic Regression
For our problem, P = e
-2.246-.780X1+.020X2+1.618X3-.023X4



1 + e
-2.246-.780X1+.020X2+1.618X3-.023X4


For, a man, 30, Latino, and 12 years of education, the P equals?
Lets solve for e
-2.246-.780X1+.020X2+1.618X3-.023X4
= e
-2.246-.780(0)+.020(30)+1.618(0)-.023(12)

e
-2.246 0 + .6

+ 0 - .276
= e
-1.922
= 2.71828
-1.922
= .146
Therefore,
P = .146 = .127 The probability that the 30 year-old, Latino with 12
1.146 years of education will own a gun is .127!!! Or
you could say there is a 12.7% chance.

Binary Logistic Regression
Inferential statistics
are as before:

In model fit, if
2
test
is significant, the
expanded model
(with your variables),
improves prediction.

This Chi-squared test
tells us that as a set,
the variables improve
classification.


Binary Logistic Regression
Inferential statistics are as before:






The significance of the coefficients is
determined by a wald test. Wald is
2
with
1 df and equals a two-tailed t
2
with p-value
exactly the same.
Binary Logistic Regression

1. Significance test for -level = .05
2. Critical X
2
df=1
= 3.84
3.To find if there is a significant slope in the population,
H
o
:

= 0
H
a
:

0
4.Collect Data
5.Calculate Wald, like t (z): t = b
o (1.96 * 1.96 = 3.84)



s.e.
6.Make decision about the null hypothesis
7.Find P-value

So how would I do hypothesis testing? An Example:
Reject the null for Male, age, and white. Fail to reject the null for education.
There is a 24.2% chance that the sample came from a population where
the education coefficient equals 0.