Transmission media

Transmission media

are located below the

physical layer
Computers use signals
to represent data.
Signals are ransmitted
in form of
electromagnetic
energy.

Transmission Media
The transmission medium is the physical path by which a

message travels from sender to receiver.

Computers and telecommunication devices use signals to

represent data.
These signals are transmitted from a device to another in the
form of electromagnetic energy.
Examples of Electromagnetic energy include power, radio waves,

infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X and gamma

rays.

All these electromagnetic signals constitute the

electromagnetic spectrum

Not all portion of the spectrum are currently usable for

telecommunications
Each portion of the spectrum requires a particular
transmission medium

Transmission Media
Transmission Media and Physical Layer

Transmission Media
Guided Media (Wired)

Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable

Unguided Media (Wireless)

Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared

Classes of transmission media

Classes of Transmission Media

Conducted or guided media
use a conductor such as a wire or a fiber optic cable to
move the signal from sender to receiver
Wireless or unguided media
use radio waves of different frequencies and do not need
a wire or cable conductor to transmit signals

Overview
The transmission media that are used to convey information can be

classified as guided or unguided. Guided media provide a physical

path along which the signals are propagated; these include twisted
pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber. Unguided media employ an
antenna for transmitting through air, vacuum, or water.
The characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined
both by the characteristics of the medium and the characteristics of
the signal. In the case of guided media, the medium itself is more
important in determining the limitations of transmission.
For unguided media, the bandwidth of the signal produced by the
transmitting antenna is more important than the medium in
determining transmission characteristics. One key property of signals
transmitted by antenna is directionality. In general, signals at lower
frequencies are omnidirectional; that is, the signal propagates in all
directions from the antenna. At higher frequencies, it is possible to
focus the signal into a directional beam. In considering the design of
data transmission systems, key concerns are data rate and distance:
the greater the data rate and distance the better.

Data Rate and Bandwidth

Any transmission system has a limited band of

frequencies
This limits the data rate that can be carried

Design Factors
A number of design factors relating to the transmission medium and the signal
determine the data rate and distance:

Bandwidth: All other factors remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth
of a signal, the higher the data rate that can be achieved.

Transmission impairments: Impairments, such as attenuation, limit the
distance. For guided media, twisted pair generally suffers more impairment than
coaxial cable, which in turn suffers more than optical fiber.

Interference: Interference from competing signals in overlapping frequency
bands can distort or wipe out a signal. Interference is of particular concern for
unguided media, but is also a problem with guided media. For guided media,
interference can be caused by emanations from nearby cables. For example, twisted
pairs are often bundled together and conduits often carry multiple cables.
Interference can also be experienced from unguided transmissions. Proper shielding
of a guided medium can minimize this problem.

Number of receivers: A guided medium can be used to construct a point-topoint link or a shared link with multiple attachments. In the latter case, each
attachment introduces some attenuation and distortion on the line, limiting distance
and/or data rate.

Transmission Characteristics of
Guided Media
Frequency
Range

Typical
Attenuation

Typical
Delay

Repeater
Spacing

Twisted pair
(with loading)

0 to 3.5 kHz

0.2 dB/km @
1 kHz

50 s/km

2 km

Twisted pairs
(multi-pair
cables)
Coaxial cable

0 to 1 MHz

0.7 dB/km @
1 kHz

5 s/km

2 km

0 to 500 MHz

7 dB/km @ 10
MHz

4 s/km

1 to 9 km

Optical fiber

186 to 370
THz

0.2 to 0.5
dB/km

5 s/km

40 km

Guided Transmission Media

Transmission capacity depends on the distance and on

whether the medium is point-to-point or multipoint

Examples
twisted pair wires
coaxial cables
optical fiber

Guided Media Twisted-pair Cable

Twisted-pair cable

 By far the most common guided transmission medium for both analog and

digital signals is twisted pair. It is the most commonly used medium in the
telephone network (linking residential telephones to the local telephone
exchange, or office phones to a PBX), and for communications within
buildings (for LANs running at 10-100Mbps). Twisted pair is much less
expensive than the other commonly used guided transmission media (coaxial
cable, optical fiber) and is easier to work with.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a

regular spiral pattern. A wire pair acts as a single communication link.
Typically, a number of these pairs are bundled together into a cable by
wrapping them in a tough protective sheath. The twisting tends to decrease
the crosstalk interference between adjacent pairs in a cable. Neighboring
pairs in a bundle typically have somewhat different twist lengths to reduce
the crosstalk interference. On long-distance links, the twist length typically
varies from 5 to 15 cm. The wires in a pair have thicknesses of from 0.4 to
0.9 mm.

Twisted Pair

Twisted pair
One of the wires carries signal, the other is used only as a ground

reference.
The receiver uses the difference b/w the two levels.
Twisting increases the probability that both wires are effected by

the noise in the same manner, thus the difference at the receiver
remains same.
Therefore, number of twists per unit length determines the

quality of the cable.

Twisted Pair - Transmission

Characteristics
analog
needs amplifiers every 5km to 6km

digital
can use either analog or digital signals
needs a repeater every 2-3km

limited distance
limited bandwidth (1MHz)
limited data rate (100MHz)
susceptible to interference and noise

Twisted Pair - Transmission

Characteristics
Twisted pair may be used to transmit both analog and digital transmission.

For analog signals, amplifiers are required about every 5 to 6 km. For digital
transmission (using either analog or digital signals), repeaters are required
every 2 or 3 km.

Compared to other commonly used guided transmission media

(coaxial cable, optical fiber), twisted pair is limited in distance, bandwidth,
and data rate. The attenuation for twisted pair is a very strong function of
frequency. Other impairments are also severe for twisted pair. The medium
is quite susceptible to interference and noise because of its easy coupling
with electromagnetic fields. Several measures are taken to reduce
impairments. Shielding the wire with metallic braid or sheathing reduces
interference. The twisting of the wire reduces low-frequency interference,
and the use of different twist lengths in adjacent pairs reduces crosstalk.

For point-to-point analog signaling, a bandwidth of up to about 1

MHz is possible. For long-distance digital point-to-point signaling, data
rates of up to a few Mbps are possible; for very short distances, data rates of
up to 10 Gbps have been achieved in commercially available products.

Twisted Pair Wires

Consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a

regular spiral pattern to minimize the electromagnetic

interference between adjacent pairs
Often used at customer facilities and also over
distances to carry voice as well as data
communications
Low frequency transmission medium

Types of Twisted Pair

STP (shielded twisted pair)
the pair is wrapped with metallic foil or braid to insulate
the pair from electromagnetic interference
UTP (unshielded twisted pair)
each wire is insulated with plastic wrap, but the pair is
encased in an outer covering

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

UTP and STP cables

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Ordinary telephone

wire
Cheapest
Easiest to install
Suffers from external
EM interference

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Metal braid or

sheathing that reduces

interference
More expensive
Harder to handle
(thick, heavy)

Near End Crosstalk

coupling of signal from one pair to another
occurs when transmit signal entering the link couples

back to receiving pair

ie. near transmitted signal is picked up by near
receiving pair

Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has

developed standards to grade UTP.
1. Category 1. The basic twisted-pair cabling used
in telephone systems. This level of quality is fine
for voice but inadequate for data transmission.
2. Category 2. This category is suitable for voice
and data transmission of up to 2Mbps.
3. Category 3.This category is suitable for data
transmission of up to 10 Mbps. It is now the
standard cable for most telephone systems.
4. Category 4. This category is suitable for data
transmission of up to 20 Mbps.
5. Category 5. This category is suitable for data
transmission of up to 100 Mbps.

UTP Categories

Guided Media UTP

UTP Connector

Guided Media - UTP

Applications:

Telephone lines connecting subscribers to

the central office
DSL lines
LAN 10Base-T and 100Base-T

Twisted Pair - Applications

Most common medium
Telephone network
Within buildings

For local area networks (LAN)

Twisted Pair Advantages

Inexpensive and readily available
Flexible and light weight
Easy to work with and install

Twisted Pair Disadvantages

Susceptibility to interference and noise
Attenuation problem
For analog, repeaters needed every 5-6km
For digital, repeaters needed every 2-3km
Relatively low bandwidth (3000Hz)
Low data rate
Short Range

Guided Media Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cable, like twisted pair, consists of two conductors, but is

constructed differently to permit it to operate over a wider range of

frequencies. It consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that
surrounds a single inner wire conductor . The inner conductor is held in
place by either regularly spaced insulating rings or a solid dielectric material.
The outer conductor is covered with a jacket or shield. A single coaxial cable
has a diameter of from 1 to 2.5 cm. Coaxial cable can be used over longer
distances and support more stations on a shared line than twisted pair.
Coaxial cable is a versatile transmission medium, used in a wide
variety of applications, including:

Television distribution - aerial to TV & CATV systems

Long-distance telephone transmission - traditionally used for interexchange links, now being replaced by optical fiber/microwave/satellite

Short-run computer system links

Local area networks

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable Applications

Most versatile medium
Television distribution
Long distance telephone transmission

Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously

Short distance computer systems links
Local area networks

Coaxial Cable Applications

Most versatile medium
Television distribution
Long distance telephone transmission

Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously

Short distance computer systems links
Local area networks

Coaxial Cable - Transmission

Characteristics

superior frequency characteristics to TP

performance limited by attenuation & noise
analog signals
amplifiers every few km
closer if higher frequency
up to 500MHz
digital signals
repeater every 1km
closer for higher data rates

Coaxial Cable (or coax)

Coaxial cable carries signals

of higher frequency ranges

than twisted-pair cable.
Coaxial Cable standards:

RG-8, RG-9, RG-11 are

used in thick Ethernet
RG-58 Used in thin Ethernet
RG-59 Used for TV

Guided Media Coaxial Cable

Categories of coaxial cables

Guided Media Coaxial Cable

BNC Connectors

BNC connectors
BNC = Bayone-Neill-

Concelman
BNC Connector is used to
connect the end of the
cable to a device
BNC T is used in networks
to branch out a cable for
connection to a computer
or other device
BNC Terminator is used at
the end of the cable to
prevent the reflection of
signal.

BNC connectors
To connect coaxial cable to devices, it is necessary to use
coaxial connectors. The most common type of connector is
the Bayone-Neill-Concelman, or BNC, connectors. There are
three
types: the BNC connector, the BNC T connector, the BNC
terminator.
Applications include cable TV networks, and some
traditional Ethernet LANs like 10Base-2, or 10-Base5.

Coaxial cable performance

Guided Media Coaxial Cable

Applications:
Analog telephone networks
Cable TV networks
Traditional Ethernet LAN 10Base2,

10Base5

Comparison of Physical Media

Wireless Examples
terrestrial microwave
satellite microwave
broadcast radio

infrared

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Wireless Transmission Frequencies

2GHz to 40GHz

microwave
highly directional
point to point
satellite

30MHz to 1GHz
omnidirectional
broadcast radio

3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014
infrared
local

Unguided Media

Propagation Methods

Bands

Unguided Media
Wireless transmission waves

Broadcast Radio
radio is 3kHz to 300GHz
use broadcast radio, 30MHz - 1GHz, for:
FM radio
UHF and VHF television
is omnidirectional
still need line of sight
suffers from multipath interference
reflections from land, water, other objects

Unguided Media Radio Waves

Omnidirectional Antenna
Frequencies between 3 KHz and
1 GHz.
are used for multicasts
communications, such as radio and
television, and paging system.

Terrestrial Microwave

used for long haul telecommunications

and short point-to-point links
requires fewer repeaters but line of sight
use a parabolic dish to focus a narrow beam onto a

receiver antenna
1-40GHz frequencies
higher frequencies give higher data rates
main source of loss is attenuation
distance, rainfall

also interference

The primary use for terrestrial microwave systems is in long haul telecommunications
service, as an alternative to coaxial cable or optical fiber. The microwave facility
requires far fewer amplifiers or repeaters than coaxial cable over the same distance,
(typically every 10-100 km) but requires line-of-sight transmission. Microwave is
commonly used for both voice and television transmission. Another increasingly
common use of microwave is for short point-to-point links between buildings, for
closed-circuit TV or as a data link between local area networks.
The most common type of microwave antenna is the parabolic "dish, fixed
rigidly to focus a narrow beam on a receiving antenna A typical size is about 3 m in
diameter. Microwave antennas are usually located at substantial heights above ground
level to extend the range between antennas and to be able to transmit over intervening
obstacles. To achieve long-distance transmission, a series of microwave relay towers is
used, and point-to-point microwave links are strung together over the desired distance.
Microwave transmission covers a substantial portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum, typically in the range 1 to 40 GHz, with 4-6GHz and now 11GHz bands the
most common. The higher the frequency used, the higher the potential bandwidth and
therefore the higher the potential data rate. As with any transmission system, a main
source of loss is attenuation, related to the square of distance. The effects of rainfall
become especially noticeable above 10 GHz. Another source of impairment is
interference.

Unguided Media Microwaves

Frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz.

Used for unicast communication such as cellular phones, satellite
networks and wireless LANs.
Unidirectional Antenna

Satellite Microwave
satellite is relay station
typically requires geo-stationary orbit
height of 35,784km
spaced at least 3-4 apart

typical uses
television
long distance telephone
private business networks
global positioning

Satellite Microwave
A communication satellite is, in effect, a microwave relay station. It is used to link two or more
ground-based microwave transmitter/receivers, known as earth stations, or ground stations.
The satellite receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink), amplifies or repeats the
signal, and transmits it on another frequency (downlink). A single orbiting satellite will operate
on a number of frequency bands, called transponder channels, or simply transponders. The
optimum frequency range for satellite transmission is in the range 1 to 10 GHz. Most satellites
providing point-to-point service today use a frequency bandwidth in the range 5.925 to 6.425
GHz for transmission from earth to satellite (uplink) and a bandwidth in the range 3.7 to 4.2
GHz for transmission from satellite to earth (downlink). This combination is referred to as the
4/6-GHz band, but has become saturated. So the 12/14-GHz band has been developed (uplink:
14 - 14.5 GHz; downlink: 11.7 - 12.2 GHz).

For a communication satellite to function effectively, it is generally required that it

remain stationary with respect to its position over the earth to be within the line of sight of its
earth stations at all times. To remain stationary, the satellite must have a period of rotation
equal to the earth's period of rotation, which occurs at a height of 35,863 km at the equator.
Two satellites using the same frequency band, if close enough together, will interfere with each
other. To avoid this, current standards require a 4 spacing in the 4/6-GHz band and a 3
spacing at 12/14 GHz. Thus the number of possible satellites is quite limited.

Among the most important applications for satellites are: Television distribution,
Long-distance telephone transmission, Private business networks, and Global positioning.

Satellite Transmission Process

satellite
transponder

dish

dish
22,300 miles

uplink station

downlink station

Microwave Transmission
Disadvantages
line of sight requirement
expensive towers and repeaters
subject to interference such as passing airplanes and

rain

Unguided Media Infrared

Frequencies between 300 GHz to 400 THz.
Can not penetrate walls.
Used for short-range communication in a
closed area using line-of-sight propagation.

Infrared

modulate noncoherent infrared light

end line of sight (or reflection)
are blocked by walls
no licenses required
typical uses
TV remote control
IRD port

Satellite Point to Point Link

Satellite Broadcast Link

Wireless Propagation
Ground Wave

Wireless Propagation
Sky Wave

Wireless Propagation
Line of Sight

Line of Sight Transmission

Free space loss
loss of signal with distance
Atmospheric Absorption
from water vapour and oxygen absorption
Multipath
multiple interfering signals from reflections
Refraction
bending signal away from receiver

Multipath Interference

Comparison of Media
Medium Cost Speed Atten Interfere Security
UTP
Low 1-100M High High
Low
STP
Medium 1-150M High Medium
Low
Coax Medium 1M1G Medium Medium
Low
Fibre High
10M2G Low Low
High
Radio Medium 1-10M Varies High
Low
Microw High 1M10G Varies High
Medium
Satellite High 1 M10G Varies High
Medium
Cellular High 9.619.2K Low Medium
Low