Piezoresistive Sensors: Strain Gauges

Piezoresistive Sensors
Strain Gauges
Definition of Piezoresistive
Sensing
Also called strain sensors or strain gauges.
A strain gauge is a device used to measure how much
a component distorts under loading.
The electrical resistance of a sensing material
changes as a result of applied strains.
A strain gauge is a conductor or semiconductor
material that can be directly fabricated on the sensor
itself or bonded with the sensor.
In macroscopic systems, such as strain sensors in
machine tools, aircraft, strain gauges are most likely
bonded onto parts.
Stress-Strain Relation
Physical causes of
Piezoresistivity
Change of relative dimensions, as
the resistance is related to length
and cross-sectional area (local).
R
l
A
dR
dL
L
L
d 2 dA
A
A
dR dL d dA
R
L
Why Electrical Conductivity Change With

Stress/Strain?
Change of electrical conductivity and resistivity as a result of
crystal lattice deformation.
Strain causes the shape of energy band curves to change,
therefore changing the effective mass, m*. Therefore electrical
conductivity changes.
Basic Formula for Describing

Piezoresistivity
G is called Gauge Factor of a piezoresistor. It determines
the amplification factor between strain and resistance
change.
R
R
L
stress E
G
R R
G
R
L
l
R
l
Material
Gauge factor
Metal foil
1-5
Semiconductor (crystal)
Diffused semiconductor
80-150
10-200
Applications at Macroscale
Spot-weldable strain gauges are
used with strain gauge sensors
and a vibrating wire indicator or
data logger to monitor strain in
steel members. Typical
applications include:
Monitoring structural members of buildings and
bridges during and after construction.
Determining load changes on ground anchors and
other post-tensioned support systems.
Monitoring load in strutting systems for deep
excavations.
Measuring strain in tunnel linings and supports.
Monitoring areas of concentrated stress in
pipelines.
Monitoring distribution of load in pile tests.
Unbonded Strain Gauge
Metal Strain Gauge

For metals, the resistivity is not changed
significantly by the stress. The gauge factor is
believed to be contributed by the change of
dimensions. These may be made from thin
wires or metal films that may be directly
fabricated on top of micro structures. Typical
strain gauge pattern is shown in the following
figure. Thin film strain gauges are typically
fabricated on top of flexible plastic substrates
and glued to surfaces.
etched foil gauges
These strain gauges consist of a conduction
path etched onto metal clad plastic film. The
strain gauges are designed to be glued,
using very special procedures onto the
component to be tested. When the
component stretches, the strain gauge will
also stretch as will the etched conduction
path.
Typical bonded strain gages
Strain gauge selection and

use
Metal alloys
Constantan, a Nickel-Cu
alloy:
Of all modern strain gage

alloys, constantan is the oldest,
and still the most widely used.
constantan tends to exhibit a

continuous drift at
temperatures above +150 deg
F (+65 deg C);
Nickel-Chrominum alloy
Wheatstone Bridge
The four arms of the
bridge circuit are
formed by the
resistance R1 to R4.
The corner points 1 and
4 are connected to the
input voltage Vin
R
2
4
R
3
The corner points 2 and

3 are connected to the
output voltage Vo.
Vin
R
4
V
o
Quarter strain gauge bridge with differential amplifier
Half strain gauge bridge with differential amplifier
Characteristics of Strain
Gauge
Highly precise measurements with little influence due to temperature changes
Long distance communication or command is possible as the output is an
electrical signal. Easy to do calculations and processing with a computer.
Small size given its capacity compared with other types of load cells.
The deflection due to the deformation of the spring material is small, and the
spring materials natural frequency is high. Thus, it is possible to shorten the
measurement time. Also, measurement of dynamic phenomena is possible.
Maintenance is easy and it has a long operating life because there are no
moving parts or any parts that generate friction.
Production is easy because of the sensors simple operation principle and
small number of components.
Excellent fatigue characteristics as long as the device is not overloaded, and its
performance can be maintained semi permanently.
The strain gauge load cell was once very difficult to manage because it had a
miniscule electrical output of V. However, this problem has been solved
thanks to advances in electronic te chnologies.

Piezoresistive Sensors: Strain Gauges

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Piezoresistive Sensors: Strain Gauges

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Piezoresistive Sensors

Why Electrical Conductivity Change With

Basic Formula for Describing

Unbonded Strain Gauge

Metal Strain Gauge

Typical bonded strain gages

Strain gauge selection and

Of all modern strain gage

constantan tends to exhibit a

The corner points 2 and

Quarter strain gauge bridge with differential amplifier

Half strain gauge bridge with differential amplifier

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