Intel Xscale® Assembly Language and C

Lecture #3

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Summary of Previous Lectures
• Course Description
• What is an embedded system?
– More than just a computer ­it's a system
• What makes embedded systems different?
– Many sets of constraints on designs
– Four general types:
• General-Purpose
• Control
• Signal Processing
• Communications
• What embedded system designers need to know?
– Multi­objective: cost, dependability, performance, etc.
– Multi­discipline: hardware, software, electromechanical, etc.
– Multi-Phase: specification, design, prototyping, deployment,
support, retirement

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Thought for the Day

The expectations of life depend upon diligence; the

mechanic that would perfect his work must first
sharpen his tools.
- Confucius

The expectations of this course depend upon diligence;

the student that would perfect his grade must first
sharpen his assembly language programming skills.

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Outline of This Lecture
• The Intel Xscale® Programmer’s Model
• Introduction to Intel Xscale® Assembly Language
• Assembly Code from C Programs (7 Examples)
• Dealing With Structures
• Interfacing C Code with Intel Xscale® Assembly
• Intel Xscale® libraries and armsd
• Handouts:
– Copy of transparencies

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Documents available online
• Course Documents  Lab Handouts  XScale
Information  Documentation on ARM
Assembler Guide
CodeWarrior IDE Guide
ARM Architecture Reference Manual
ARM Developer Suite: Getting Started
ARM Architecture Reference Manual

Introduction to Embedded Systems

The Intel Xscale® Programmer’s Model (1)
(We will not be using the Thumb instruction set.)
• Memory Formats
– We will be using the Big Endian format
• the lowest numbered byte of a word is considered the word’s
most significant byte, and the highest numbered byte is
considered the least significant byte .
• Instruction Length
– All instructions are 32-bits long.
• Data Types
– 8-bit bytes and 32-bit words.
• Processor Modes (of interest)
– User: the “normal” program execution mode.
– IRQ: used for general-purpose interrupt handling.
– Supervisor: a protected mode for the operating system.

Introduction to Embedded Systems

The Intel Xscale® Programmer’s Model (2)
• The Intel Xscale® Register Set
– Registers R0-R15 + CPSR (Current Program Status Register)
– R13: Stack Pointer
– R14: Link Register
– R15: Program Counter where bits 0:1 are ignored (why?)
• Program Status Registers
– CPSR (Current Program Status Register)
• holds info about the most recently performed ALU operation
– contains N (negative), Z (zero), C (Carry) and V (oVerflow) bits
• controls the enabling and disabling of interrupts
• sets the processor operating mode
– SPSR (Saved Program Status Registers)
• used by exception handlers
• Exceptions
– reset, undefined instruction, SWI, IRQ.

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Intro to Intel Xscale® Assembly Language
• “Load/store” architecture
• 32-bit instructions
• 32-bit and 8-bit data types
• 32-bit addresses
• 37 registers (30 general-purpose registers, 6 status registers
and a PC)
– only a subset is accessible at any point in time
• Load and store multiple instructions
• No instruction to move a 32-bit constant to a register (why?)
• Conditional execution
• Barrel shifter
– scaled addressing, multiplication by a small constant, and ‘constant’
generation
• Co-processor instructions (we will not use these)

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 The Structure of an Assembler Module
Chunks of code or data manipulated by the linker Minimum required block (why?)

AREA Example, CODE, READONLY ; name of code block

ENTRY ; 1st exec. instruction
First
instruction start
to be MOV r0, #15 ; set up parameters
executed
MOV r1, #20
BL func ; call subroutine
SWI 0x11 ; terminate program
func ; the subroutine
ADD r0, r0, r1 ; r0 = r0 + r1
MOV pc, lr ; return from subroutine
; result in r0
END ; end of code

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Intel Xscale® Assembly Language Basics
• Conditional Execution
• The Intel Xscale® Barrel Shifter
• Loading Constants into Registers
• Loading Addresses into Registers
• Jump Tables
• Using the Load and Store Multiple Instructions

Check out Chapters 1 through 5 of

the ARM Architecture Reference Manual

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Generating Assembly Language Code from C
• Use the command-line option –S in the ‘target’
properties in Code Warrior.
– When you compile a .c file, you get a .s file
– This .s file contains the assembly language code
generated by the compiler
• When assembled, this code can potentially be linked
and loaded as an executable

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Example 1: A Simple Program
int a,b; AREA ||.text||, CODE, READONLY
int main() main PROC
{ |L1.0|
a = 3; LDR r0,|L1.28|
MOV r1,#3
b = 4; STR r1,[r0,#0] ; a
} /* end main() */ MOV r1,#4
STR r1,[r0,#4] ; b
MOV r0,#0
BX lr // subroutine call
|L1.28|
DCD declare one or more words
||.bss$2||
ENDP
AREA ||.bss||
a
label “L1.28” ­compiler ||.bss$2||
tends to make the labels % 4 loader will put the address of
equal to the address b |||.bss$2| into this memory
% 4 location
EXPORT main
EXPORT b
EXPORT a
END
declares storage (1 32-bit word)
and initializes it with zero

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Example 1 (cont’d)
address AREA ||.text||, CODE, READONLY
main PROC
|L1.0|
0x00000000 LDR r0,|L1.28|
0x00000004 MOV r1,#3
0x00000008 STR r1,[r0,#0] ; a
0x0000000C MOV r1,#4
0x00000010 STR r1,[r0,#4] ; b
0x00000014 MOV r0,#0
0x00000018 BX lr // subroutine call
0x0000001C |L1.28|
DCD 0x00000020
ENDP This is a pointer to the
AREA ||.bss|| |x$dataseg| location
a
||.bss$2||
0x00000020
DCD 00000000
0x00000024 b
DCD 00000000
EXPORT main
EXPORT b
EXPORT a
END

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 Example 2: Calling A Function
int tmp; AREA ||.text||, CODE, READONLY
swap PROC
void swap(int a, int b);
LDR r2,|L1.56|
int main() STR r0,[r2,#0] ; tmp
{ MOV r0,r1
int a,b; LDR r2,|L1.56|
a = 3; LDR r1,[r2,#0] ; tmp
BX lr
b = 4; main PROC STMFD ­store multiple,
swap(a,b); STMFD sp!,{r4,lr} full descending
} /* end main() */ MOV r3,#3 sp  sp ­4
MOV r4,#4 mem[sp] = lr ; linkreg
MOV r1,r4 sp  sp – 4
void swap(int a,int b)
MOV r0,r3 mem[sp] = r4 ; linkreg
{ BL swap
tmp = a; MOV r0,#0
a = b; LDMFD sp!,{r4,pc}
b = tmp; |L1.56| DCD ||.bss$2|| ; points to tmp
END
} /* end swap() */
contents of lr
SP contents of r4

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 Example 3: Manipulating Pointers
int tmp; AREA ||.text||, CODE, READONLY
int *pa, *pb; swap LDR r1,|L1.60| ; get tmp addr
STR r0,[r1,#0] ; tmp = a
void swap(int a, int b);
BX lr
int main() main STMFD sp!,{r2,r3,lr}
{ LDR r0,|L1.60| ; get tmp addr
int a,b; ADD r1,sp,#4 ; &a on stack
pa = &a; STR r1,[r0,#4] ; pa = &a
STR sp,[r0,#8] ; pb = &b (sp)
pb = &b; MOV r0,#3
*pa = 3; STR r0,[sp,#4] ; *pa = 3
*pb = 4; MOV r1,#4
swap(*pa, *pb); STR r1,[sp,#0] ; *pb = 4
BL swap ; call swap
} /* end main() */
MOV r0,#0
LDMFD sp!,{r2,r3,pc}
void swap(int a,int b) |L1.60| DCD ||.bss$2||
{ AREA ||.bss||
tmp = a; ||.bss$2||
tmp DCD 00000000
a = b; pa DCD 00000000
b = tmp; pb DCD 00000000
} /* end swap() */

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 Example 3 (cont’d) 1 address
AREA ||.text||, CODE, READONLY
swap LDR r1,|L1.60| 0x90
STR r0,[r1,#0] SP contents of lr 0x8c
BX lr contents of r3 0x88
main STMFD sp!,{r2,r3,lr}
1 contents of r2 0x84
LDR r0,|L1.60| ; get tmp addr 0x80
ADD r1,sp,#4 ; &a on stack
STR r1,[r0,#4] ; pa = &a 2
STR sp,[r0,#8] ; pb = &b (sp)
2 address
MOV r0,#3
STR r0,[sp,#4] 0x90
MOV r1,#4 contents of lr 0x8c
STR r1,[sp,#0] 0x88
BL swap
a
0x84
MOV r0,#0 SP b 0x80
LDMFD sp!,{r2,r3,pc}
|L1.60| DCD ||.bss$2||
AREA ||.bss
main’s local variables a
||.bss$2|| and b are placed on the
tmp DCD 00000000 stack
pa DCD 00000000 ; tmp addr + 4

pb DCD 00000000 ; tmp addr + 8

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 Example 4: Dealing with “struct”s
typedef struct AREA ||.text||, CODE, READONLY
testStruct { main PROC r1  M[#L1.56] is the pointer to ptest
unsigned int a; |L1.0|
MOV r0,#4 ; r0  4
unsigned int b; LDR r1,|L1.56|
char c; LDR r1,[r1,#0] ; r1  &ptest
} testStruct; STR r0,[r1,#0] ; ptest->a = 4
MOV r0,#0xa ; r0  10
LDR r1,|L1.56|
testStruct *ptest;
LDR r1,[r1,#0] ; r1  ptest
STR r0,[r1,#4] ; ptest->b = 10
int main() MOV r0,#0x41 ; r0  ‘A’
{ LDR r1,|L1.56|
ptest­
>a = 4; LDR r1,[r1,#0] ; r1  &ptest
STRB r0,[r1,#8] ; ptest->c = ‘A’
ptest­
>b = 10; MOV r0,#0
ptest­
>c = 'A'; BX lr
} /* end main() */ |L1.56| watch out, ptest is only a ptr
DCD the structure was never malloc'd!
||.bss$2||
AREA ||.bss||
ptest
||.bss$2||
% 4

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 Questions?

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 Example 5: Dealing with Lots of Arguments
int tmp; AREA ||.text||, CODE, READONLY
void test(int a, int b, int test LDR r1,[sp,#0] ; get &e
c, int d, int *e); LDR r2,|L1.72| ; get tmp addr
int main() STR r0,[r2,#0] ; tmp = a
{ int a, b, c, d, e; STR r3,[r1,#0] ; *e = d
a = 3; BX lr
b = 4; main PROC
c = 5; STMFD sp!,{r2,r3,lr} ;  2 slots
d = 6; MOV r0,#3 ; 1st param a
e = 7; MOV r1,#4 ; 2nd param b
test(a, b, c, d, &e); MOV r2,#5 ; 3rd param c
} /* end main() */
MOV r12,#6 ; 4th param d
MOV r3,#7 ; overflow  stack
STR r3,[sp,#4] ; e on stack
void test(int a,int b,
ADD r3,sp,#4
int c, int d, int *e) STR r3,[sp,#0] ; &e on stack
{ MOV r3,r12 ; 4th param d in r3
tmp = a; BL test
a = b; MOV r0,#0
b = tmp; LDMFD sp!,{r2,r3,pc}
r0 holds the return value
c = b; |L1.72|
b = d; DCD ||.bss$2||
*e = d; tmp
} /* end test() */

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Example 5 (cont’d) 1 address
contents of lr
AREA ||.text||, CODE, READONLY 0x90
test LDR r1,[sp,#0] ; get &e contents of r3 0x8c
LDR r2,|L1.72| ; get tmp addr
STR r0,[r2,#0] ; tmp = a SP contents of r2 0x88
STR r3,[r1,#0] ; *e = d 0x84
BX lr 0x80
main PROC
STMFD sp!,{r2,r3,lr} ;  2 slots
MOV r0,#3 ; 1st param a 1
MOV r1,#4 ; 2nd param b 2 address
MOV r2,#5 ; 3rd param c
MOV r12,#6 ; 4th param d 0x90
MOV r3,#7 ; overflow  stack #7 0x8c
STR r3,[sp,#4] ; e on stack
SP 0x88
ADD r3,sp,#4 2 0x84
STR r3,[sp,#0] ; &e on stack
MOV r3,r12 ; 4th param d in r3 3 0x80
BL test
MOV r0,#0
LDMFD sp!,{r2,r3,pc} 3 address
|L1.72|
DCD ||.bss$2|| 0x90
tmp #7 0x8c
Note: In “test”, the compiler removed SP 0x8c 0x88
the assignments to a, b, and c ­these 0x84
assignments have no effect, so they 0x80
were removed

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 Example 6: Nested Function Calls
int tmp; swap2 LDR r1,|L1.72|
int swap(int a, int b); STR r0,[r1,#0] ; tmp  a
void swap2(int a, int b); BX lr
int main(){ swap MOV r2,r0
int a, b, c; MOV r0,r1
a = 3; STR lr,[sp,#-4]! ; save lr
b = 4; LDR r1,|L1.72|
c = swap(a,b); STR r2,[r1,#0]
} /* end main() */
MOV r1,r2
BL swap2 ; call swap2
MOV r0,#0xa ; ret value
int swap(int a,int b){
LDR pc,[sp],#4 ; restore lr
tmp = a; main STR lr,[sp,#-4]!
a = b; MOV r0,#3 ; set up params
b = tmp; MOV r1,#4 ; before call
swap2(a,b); BL swap ; to swap
return(10); MOV r0,#0
} /* end swap() */ LDR pc,[sp],#4
|L1.72|
void swap2(int a,int b){ DCD ||.bss$2||
tmp = a; AREA ||.bss||, NOINIT, ALIGN=2
a = b; tmp
b = tmp;
} /* end swap() */

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 Example 7: Optimizing across Functions
int tmp; AREA ||.text||, CODE, READONLY
int swap(int a,int b); swap2 LDR r1,|L1.60|
void swap2(int a,int b); STR r0,[r1,#0] ; tmp
BX lr
int main(){ Doesn't return to swap(),
swap MOV r2,r0
int a, b, c; MOV r0,r1 instead it jumps directly
a = 3; LDR r1,|L1.60| back to main()
b = 4; STR r2,[r1,#0] ; tmp
c = swap(a,b); MOV r1,r2
B swap2 ; *NOT* “BL”
} /* end main() */ main PROC
int swap(int a,int b){ STR lr,[sp,#-4]!
tmp = a; MOV r0,#3
a = b; MOV r1,#4
BL swap
b = tmp;
MOV r0,#0
swap2(a,b); LDR pc,[sp],#4
} /* end swap() */ |L1.60|
void swap2(int a,int b){ DCD ||.bss$2||
tmp = a; AREA ||.bss||, tmp
||.bss$2||
a = b; % 4
b = tmp;
Compare with Example 6 ­in this example,
} /* end swap() */ the compiler optimizes the code so that
swap2() returns directly to main()

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Interfacing C and Assembly Language
• ARM (the company @ www.arm.com) has developed a
standard called the “ARM Procedure Call Standard”
(APCS) which defines:
– constraints on the use of registers
– stack conventions
– format of a stack backtrace data structure
– argument passing and result return
– support for ARM shared library mechanism
• Compiler­generated code conforms to the APCS
– It's just a standard ­not an architectural requirement
– Cannot avoid standard when interfacing C and assembly code
– Can avoid standard when just writing assembly code or when writing
assembly code that isn't called by C code

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Register Names and Use

Register # APCS Name APCS Role

R0 a1 argument 1
R1 a2 argument 2
R2 a3 argument 3
R3 a4 argument 4
R4..R8 v1..v5 register variables
R9 sb/v6 static base/register variable
R10 sl/v7 stack limit/register variable
R11 fp frame pointer
R12 ip scratch reg/ new­sb in inter­link­unit calls
R13 sp low end of current stack frame
R14 lr link address/scratch register
R15 pc program counter

Introduction to Embedded Systems

How Does STM Place Things into Memory ?
STM sp!, {r0­r15} address
SPbefore 0x90
• The XScale processor uses a pc 0x8c
bit-vector to represent each lr 0x88
register to be saved sp 0x84
ip 0x80
• The architecture places the fp 0x7c
lowest number register into v7 0x78
the lowest address v6 0x74
0x70
• Default STM == STMDB v5
0x6c
v4
0x68
v3
0x64
v2
0x60
v1 0x5c
a4 0x58
a3 0x54
a2 0x50
SPafter a1

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Passing and Returning Structures
• Structures are usually passed in registers (and overflow onto
the stack when necessary)
• When a function returns a struct, a pointer to where the
struct result is to be placed is passed in a1 (first
parameter)
• Example
struct s f(int x);
­is compiled as ­
void f(struct s *result, int x);

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 Example: Passing Structures as Pointers

typedef struct two_ch_struct{ max PROC

char ch1; STMFD sp!,{r0,r1,lr}
char ch2;
SUB sp,sp,#4
} two_ch; LDRB r0,[sp,#4]
LDRB r1,[sp,#8]
two_ch max(two_ch a, two_ch b){ CMP r0,r1
return((a.ch1 > b.ch1) ? a : b); BLS |L1.36|
LDR r0,[sp,#4]
} /* end max() */ STR r0,[sp,#0]
B |L1.44|
|L1.36|
LDR r0,[sp,#8]
STR r0,[sp,#0]
|L1.44|
LDR r0,[sp,#0]

LDMFD sp!,{r1-r3,pc}
ENDP

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 “Frame Pointer”
foo 1 address
MOV ip, sp ip 0x90
1 STMDB sp!,{a1­
a3, fp, ip, lr, pc} fp pc 0x8c
<computations go here>
lr 0x88
LDMDB fp,{fp, sp, pc}
ip 0x84
fp 0x80
a3 0x7c
a2 0x78
SP a1
0x74
0x70

• frame pointer (fp)

points to the top of
stack for function

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 The Frame Pointer
address
SPbefore 0x90
• fp points to top of the stack area for the FPafter pc 0x8c
current function lr 0x88
– Or zero if not being used sb 0x84
• By using the frame pointer and storing it at ip 0x80
the same offset for every function call, it fp 0x7c
creates a singly­linked list of activation v7 0x78
records v6 0x74
• Creating the stack “backtrace” structure v5 0x70
v4 0x6c
MOV ip, sp
0x68
STMFD sp!,{a1­
a4,v1­ v3
0x64
v5,sb,fp,ip,lr,pc} v2
0x60
SUB fp, ip, #4 v1 0x5c
a4 0x58
a3 0x54
a2 0x50
SPafter a1

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 Mixing C and Assembly Language

XScale
Assembly Assembler
Code

XScale
C Library Linker
Executable

C Source
Compiler
Code

Introduction to Embedded Systems

 Multiply

• Multiply instruction can take multiple cycles

– Can convert Y * Constant into series of adds and shifts
– Y*9=Y*8+Y*1
– Assume R1 holds Y and R2 will hold the result
ADD R2, R2, R1, LSL #3 ; multiplication by 9 (Y * 8) + (Y * 1)
RSB R2, R1, R1, LSL #3 ; multiplication by 7 (Y * 8) - (Y * 1)
(RSB: reverse subtract - operands to subtraction are reversed)
• Another example: Y * 105
– 105 = 128 ­23 = 128 ­(16 + 7) = 128 ­(16 + (8 ­1))
RSB r2, r1, r1, LSL #3 ; r2 <­
­Y*7 = Y*8 ­Y*1(assume r1 holds Y)
ADD r2, r2, r1, LSL #4 ; r2 <­
­r2 + Y * 16 (r2 held Y*7; now holds Y*23)
RSB r2, r2, r1, LSL #7 ; r2 <­
­(Y * 128) ­r2 (r2 now holds Y*105)
• Or Y * 105 = Y * (15 * 7) = Y * (16 ­1) * (8 ­1)
RSB r2,r1,r1,LSL #4 ; r2 <­
­(r1 * 16)­r1
RSB r3, r2, r2, LSL #3 ; r3 <­
­(r2 * 8)­r2

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Looking Ahead
• Software Interrupts (traps)

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Suggested Reading (NOT required)
• Activation Records (for backtrace structures)
– http://www.enel.ucalgary.ca/People/Norman/engg335/activ_rec/

Introduction to Embedded Systems