Network Routing: algorithms & protocols

Goal: find “good” path to each

5
destination
 Graph abstraction of a network B 3
C
2 5
 Nodes: routers
 Edges: physical links (with assigned A 2 1 F
3
cost) 1 2
route computation algorithms D E
1
 link-state (Dijkstra)
 each router knows complete topology &
Routing protocols
link cost information define the format of routing
 Run routing algorithm to calculate information exchanges
shortest path to each destination  define the computation upon
 distance-vector (Bellman-Ford) receiving routing updates
 Each router knows direct neighbors &  network topology changes over
link costs to neighbors time, routing protocol must
 Calculate the shortest path to each continuously update the routers
destination through an iterative process with latest changes
based on the neighbors distances to
each destination
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 Graph abstraction: costs

5
• c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3
v w 5
2 - e.g., c(w,z) = 5
u 2 1 z
3 • cost could always be 1, or
1 2 inversely related to bandwidth,
x 1
y
or inversely related to
congestion

Cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

Question: What’s the least-cost path between u and z ?

Routing algorithm: algorithm that finds least-cost path

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 Dijkstra’s algorithm
 Assume net topology, link costs 1 Initialization:
is known
2 N' = {A}
 computes least cost paths from
one node to all other nodes 3 for all nodes v
 Create forwarding table for that 4 if v adjacent to A
node 5 then D(v) = c(A,v)
6 else D(v) = 
Notation: 7
 c(i,j): link cost from node i to j 8 Loop
(∞ if not known) 9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is
 D(v): current value of cost of minimum
path from source to dest. V 10 add w to N'
 p(v): predecessor node along 11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w
path from source to v, (neighbor and not in N':
of v) 12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
 N': set of nodes whose least cost 13 /* new cost to v is either the old
path already known cost, or known shortest path cost to
w plus cost from w to v */
14 until all nodes in N'
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 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step start N' D(B),p(B) D(C),p(C) D(D),p(D) D(E),p(E) D(F),p(F)
0 A 2,A 5,A 1,A infinity infinity
1 AD 2,A 4,D 2,D infinity
2 ADE 2,A 3,E 4,E
3 ADEB 3,E 4,E
4 ADEBC 4,E
5 ADEBCF

5
B 3 C
2 5
A 2 1 F
3
1 2
D 1 E

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 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step start N D(B),p(B) D(C),p(C) D(D),p(D) D(E),p(E) D(F),p(F)
0 A 2,A 5,A 1,A infinity infinity
1 AD 2,A 4,D 2,D infinity
2 ADB 4,D 2,D infinity
3 ADBE 3,E 4,E
4 ADBEC 4,E
5 ADEBCF
Resulting forwarding table at A:
Resulting shortest-path tree for A: destination link
5 B (A, B)
3 D (A, D)
B C 5
2 E (A, D)
A 2 1 F C (A, D)
3
1 2 F (A, D)
D E
1

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 Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion
Algorithm complexity: n nodes
 each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
 more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
Oscillations possible:
 e.g., link cost = amount of carried traffic

1 A A A A
1+e 2+e 0 0 2+e 2+e 0
D 0 0 B D 1+e 1 B D B D 1+e 1 B
0 0
0 e 0 0 1 1+e 0 e
1
C C C C
1
e
… recompute … recompute … recompute
initially
routing

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 Bellman-Ford Equation
Define: Dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
Then Dx(y) = min {c(x,v) + Dv(y) }
 where min is taken over all neighbors v of x

Du(z) = min {c(u,v) + Dv(z),

5 c(u,x) + Dx(z),
3 c(u,w) + Dw(z) }
v w 5 = min {2 + 5,
2
u 2 1 z 1 + 3,
3
1 2 5 + 3} = 4
x 1 y Node leading to shortest path is
next hop ➜ forwarding table
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 Distance vector protocl (1)
Basic idea:
 Each node periodically sends its own distance
vector estimate to neighbors
 When a node x receives new DV estimate from
neighbor v, it updates its own DV using B-F
equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

In normal cases, the estimate Dx(y) converge to the

actual least cost dx(y)

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 Distance Table: example
1 cost to destination via
B C E Outgoing
7 D() A B D DE link
A 8 2
1 A 1 14 5 A A,1
E D
2
B 7 8 5 B D,5

C 6 9 4 C D,4

D 4 11 2 D D,2
forwarding
table

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 Distance Vector Protocol (2)

Iterative, asynchronous: Each node:

each local iteration caused
by:
wait for (change in local link
 local link cost change cost of msg from neighbor)
 DV update message from
neighbor
recompute estimates
Distributed:
 each node notifies neighbors
if DV to any dest has
only when its DV changes
changed, notify neighbors
 neighbors then notify their
neighbors if necessary

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 Distance Vector: an example

Y
2 1
X Z X Z
7 D (Y,Z) = c(X,Z) + minw{D (Y,w)}
= 7+1 = 8

X Y
D (Z,Y) = c(X,Y) + minw {D (Z,w)}
= 2+1 = 3

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 Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
node detects local link cost change
updates distance table (line 15) 1
if cost change in least cost path, notify Y
4 1
neighbors (lines 23,24)
X Z
50

algorithm
“good terminates

news
travels
fast”

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 Distance Vector: link cost changes (2)
Link cost changes:
bad news travels slow - “count to infinity”
problem! 60
Y
4 1
X Z
50

algorithm
continues
on!

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 Distance Vector: poisoned reverse
 If Z routes through Y to get to X : 60
 Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is Y
4 1
infinite (so Y won’t route to X via Z) X Z
50
algorithm
terminates

Will this completely solve count to infinity problem?

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 An example for Distance Vector routing
with Poisson reverse (PR)
A's routing table A's update to B B's routing table
Dst Dis Nex w/o PR Dst Dis Nex Dst Dis Nex
B 1 B B 1 A 1 A A 1 A
C 3 B C 3 C 2 C C 4 A 
D 4 B D 4 D 3 C D 5 A 
E 4 B E 4 E 3 C E 5 A 
F 7 B F 7 F 6 C F 8 A 
G 6 H G 6 G 5 C G 7 A 
H 2 H H 2 H 3 H H 3 H
A's update to B with PR:
B 1
C  A 1 B 2 C
1 D
D  1
E  2 3
4
F  H 4 2
E 3
G 6
H 2 G 4 F
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 Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
 distance vector:
 distribute one’s own routing table to neighbors
• routing update can be large in size, but travels only one link
 each node only knows distances to other destinations
 link state
 broadcast raw topology information to entire net
• routing update is small in size, but travels over all links in the net
 each node knows entire topology
 Performance measure: Message complexity, Time to convergence
Robustness: what happens if router malfunctions?
LS:
 node can advertise incorrect link cost
 each node computes only its own table
DV:
 DV node can advertise incorrect path cost
 each node’s table used by others
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 What we have talked about routing
 Dijkstra routing algorithm
 Given a topology map, compute the shortest paths to
all the other nodes
 Bellman-Ford routing algorithm
 Given the lists of distance to all destinations from all
the neighbors, compute the shortest path to
destination
 Known problem: count-to-infinity
 A simple (partial) solution: poison-reverse

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 Routing in the Internet
 The Global Internet: a large number of
Autonomous Systems (AS) interconnected with
each other:
 Stub AS: end user networks (corporations, campuses)
• Multihomed AS: stub ASes that are connected to multiple
service providers
 Transit AS: Internet service provider
 Two-level routing hierarchy:
 Intra-AS
 Inter-AS

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 Internet Hierarchical Routing
Inter-AS border (exterior gateway) routers

Intra-AS
(interior
gateway)
routers  autonomous system (AS): a set of routers under the same
administrative domain
 Each AS makes its own decision on internal routing
protocol (IGP) to use
 All routers in one AS run the same IGP
 border routers also run BGP
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 Intra-AS and Inter-AS routing
C.b
Border routers:
B.a • perform inter-AS
A.a routing across AS
b A.c c boundaries
a C a
b • perform intra-AS
a B
d c
routing with other
A b routers in each's own
AS
intra-AS inter-AS network layer
routing routing
protocol protocol
inter-AS, intra-AS link layer
routing in
gateway A.c physical layer

5/9/05 20 CS118/Spring05
 Intra-AS and Inter-AS routing
Inter-AS
C.b routing
between B.a
A.a A and B
Host
b A.c c 18.2.4.157
a C a
b
a B
Host-1 d c Intra-AS routing
A b within AS B
Intra-AS routing Forwarding table
within AS A
131.179.0.0 outf-1
18.0.0.0 outf-2
23.0.0.0 outf-2
157.34.128.0 outf-3
222.8.192.0 outf-4

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 Intra-AS Routing:
Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)
 Most commonly used IGPs:
 IS-IS:Intermediate System to Intermediate System
Routing protocol
 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
 IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco
proprietary)
 RIP: Routing Information Protocol

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 RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
 Distance vector algorithm
 Distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops)

 Neighbor routers exchanged routing advertisement every 30

seconds destination hops
u v
u 1
A B w v 2
w 2
x 3
x y 3
z C D
z 2
y

 Failure and Recovery: If no update from neighbor N heard after

180 sec  neighbor/link declared dead
 All routes via N invalidated; updates sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn may send out new advertisements (if tables changed)
 Use poison reverse to prevent ping-pong loops (16 hops = )
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 RIP (Routing Information Protocol)

z
w x y
A D B

C
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Routing table in D
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 RIP: Example
Dest. distance
w 1 Advertisement
x 1 from A to D
z 4
…. ...
z
w x y
A D B

C
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z BA 75
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Routing table in D
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 RIP Implementation
 route-d (daemon): an application-level process that
manages RIP routing table and generates periodic RIP
routing updates
 Process updates from neighbors
 send updates periodically to neighbors (if detect a failure, send
right away)
 Keeps the resulting routing table only (not all the updates)

routed routed

Transport Transport
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) table table (IP)
link link
physical physical
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 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 A Link State protocol
 each node knows its directly connected neighbors & the link
distance to each (link-state)
 each node periodically broadcasts its link-state to the entire
network
 Link-State Packet: one entry per neighbor router
 ID of the node that created the LSP
 a list of direct neighbors, with link cost to each
 sequence number for this LSP message (SEQ)
 time-to-live (TTL) for information carried in this LSP
 Use raw IP packet (protocol ID = 89)

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 Building a complete map using Link State
 Everyone broadcasts a piece of the topology
 Put all the pieces together, you get the complete
map

Then each node carries out its own routing calculation independently
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 Link-State Routing Protocol
 The routing daemon running at each node: Builds
and maintains topology map at each node
 Stores and forwards most recent LSP from all other
nodes
• decrement TTL of stored LSP; discard info when TTL=0
 Compute routes using Dijkstra’s algorithm
 generates its own LSP periodically with increasing
SEQ

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 Reliable Flooding of LSP
forward each received LSP to all neighbor nodes
but the one that sent it
each ISP is reliably delivered over each link
use the source-ID and SEQ in a LSP to detect
duplicates
LSPs sent both periodically and event-driven
X A X A X A X A

C B D C B D C B D C B D

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 Advanced features supported by OSPF
 Security: all OSPF messages authenticated
 Multiple same-cost paths allowed
 For each link, multiple cost metrics for different
TOS (eg, satellite link cost set “low” for best
effort; high for real time)
 Integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast
OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data
base as OSPF
 Hierarchical OSPF in large domains.

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 Hierarchical OSPF

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 Hierarchical OSPF
 Two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
 Link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only know direction
(shortest path) to nets in other areas.
 Area border routers: “summarize” distances to nets in own
area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
 Backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to backbone.
 Boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

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 Inter-AS routing

 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto standard

 Path Vector protocol:
 similar to Distance Vector protocol
 each Border router broadcast to neighbors (peers) entire path
(I.e, sequence of ASs) to destination
 E.g., Path (X,Z) = X,Y1,Y2,Y3,…,Z

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 Example:
Forwarding Table in Router d of AS A
 Suppose AS A learns from the inter-AS protocol that
subnet x is reachable from AS B (gateway A.c) but not
from AS C.
 Inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to all
internal routers.
 Router d determines from intra-AS routing info that its
interface I is on the least cost path to c.
 Puts in forwarding table entry (x, I).

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 Choosing among multiple ASes
 Now suppose AS1 learns from the inter-AS protocol
that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
 To configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine
towards which gateway it should forward packets for
dest x.
 This is also the job on inter-AS routing protocol!
 Hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of two
routers.

Use routing info Determine from

Learn from inter-AS Hot potato routing: forwarding table the
from intra-AS
protocol that subnet Choose the gateway interface I that leads
protocol to determine
x is reachable via that has the to least-cost gateway.
costs of least-cost
multiple gateways smallest least cost Enter (x,I) in
paths to each
of the gateways forwarding table

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 Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto standard
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
1. Obtain subnet reachability information from neighboring ASs.
2. Propagate the reachability information to all routers internal to
the AS.
3. Determine “good” routes to subnets based on reachability
information and policy.
 Allows a subnet to advertise its existence to rest of the
Internet: “I am here”

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 BGP basics
 Pairs of routers (BGP peers) exchange routing info over a
TCP connection: BGP sessions
 BGP sessions do not necessarily correspond to physical links.
 When AS2 advertises a prefix to AS1, AS2 is promising it
will forward any datagrams destined to that prefix
towards the prefix.

3c
3a 2c
3b AS3 2a
1c 2b
AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
eBGP session
iBGP session
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 Distributing reachability info
 With eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends prefix
reachability info to AS1.
 1c can then use iBGP to distribute this new prefix reach info to all
routers in AS1
 1b can then re-advertise the new reach info to AS2 over the 1b-to-
2a eBGP session
 When router learns about a new prefix, it creates an entry for the
prefix in its forwarding table.

3c P
3a 2c
3b AS3 2a
1c 2b
AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d eBGP session

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 Path attributes & BGP routes
 When advertising a prefix, advert includes BGP
attributes.
 prefix + attributes = “route”
 most important attribute: AS-PATH: contains the ASs through
which the advert for the prefix passed: AS 67 AS 17
 When an eBGP router receives route advert, uses import
policy to accept/decline.
 eBGP router also applies export policy to decide which
routers to tell which neighbor eBGP router

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 BGP route selection
 Router may learn about more than 1 route to some prefix. Router
must select route.
 Elimination rules:
1. Local preference value attribute: policy decision
2. Shortest AS-PATH
3. Closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
4. Additional criteria

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 BGP messages

 BGP messages exchanged using TCP.

 BGP messages:
 OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
 UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
 KEEPALIVE keeps connection alive in absence of
UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
 NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg;
also used to close connection

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 BGP routing policy

legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

Figure 4.5-BGPnew: a simple BGP scenario

A,B,C are provider networks
X,W,Y are customers (of provider networks)
X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
X does not want to route from B via X to C
.. so X will not advertise to B a route to C
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 BGP routing policy (2)

legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

Figure 4.5-BGPnew: a simple BGP scenario

A advertises to B the path AW
B advertises to X the path BAW
Should B advertise to C the path BAW?
No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since
neither W nor C are B’s customers
B wants to force C to route to w via A
B wants to route only to/from its customers!
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 Why different Intra- and Inter-AS routing ?
Policy:
 Inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic routed, who
routes through its net.
 Intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
Scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update traffic
Performance:
 Intra-AS: can focus on performance
 Inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance

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