CLIENT SERVER MODEL

INTRODUCTION
Oracle Database Server
Many databases applications are
built in Client Server Model.
In this model, the program itself
recides on a client machine and
send request to a database server SQL SQL SQL
for information. The requests are
done by using SQL. This results in
many network trips, one for each
SQL statement.
If client and server both are running
Client Application
in the same machine, performance
is increased.
 Structured Query Language
Structured Query Language
SQL is a standard language for communication with
RDBMS from any tool. A database management system
requires a query language to enable users to access
data. SQL is the language used by most relational
databases systems.
It was developed in a prototype relational database
management (System – R) in mid 1970 by IBM. System-R
was developed by E.F.Codd in Nov. 1976. In 1979, Oracle
corporation introduced the first commercially
implementation of SQL. The ANSI (Abbreviation of
American National Standards Institute) adopted SQL as
the standard language for RDBMS in 1986.
SQL is a non-procedural language which looks like
English language. SQL, directly supports the
relationships between data-tables(Schema).
Characteristics of SQL
1.It is very easy to learn and use.
2.Large volume of databases can be handled quite easily.
3.It is non procedural language. It means that we do not need
to specify the procedures to accomplish a task but just to give
a command to perform the activity.
4.SQL can be linked to most of other high level languages that
makes it first choice for the database programmers.
5.Recovery and Concurrency [ in which multiple users
operate on same database].
6.Security – The security can be maintained by views. A view
is a virtual table and is used to hide sensitive information and
defines only part of a database which should be visible.
7.Intigrity Constraints – Integrity Constraints are enforced by
system(One can specify an attribute of a relation will not take
an null value.).
 CLASSIFICATION of SQL STATEMENTS
SQL provies may different types of commands used for
different purpose. SQL Commands can be divided into
following categories:
1. Data Definition Language (DDL):
They allow us to perform tasks related to data definition only.
We can only work with table structure.
eg. [CREAT / ALTER / DROP TABLE].

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

DML contains command that can be used to perform the
tasks to access or manipulate the data in a table.
[ INSERT/ UPDATE/ DELETE RECORES)
 4. TCL : Transaction Control Language
They are used to manage transactions.
A transaction is one complete unit of work.
A transaction is successfully completed if and
only if all its constituent steps are successfully
completed. Eg.
COMMIT: It makes all changes permanently.
ROLLBACK: It undo all changes.
SAVE POINT: It mark a point upto which all
earlier statements have been successfully
completed and if required in case of failure on
may be undo changes.
Operators in SQL:
The following are the commonly used operators in
SQL
1)Arithmetic Operators +, -, *, /
2)Relational Operators =, <, >, <=, >=, <>
3)Logical Operators OR, AND, NOT
Arithmetic operators are used to perform simple
arithmetic operations.
Relational Operators are used when two values are
to be compared and
Logical operators are used to connect search
conditions in the WHERE Clause in SQL.
Constraints:
Constraints are the conditions that can
be enforced on the attributes of a
relation. The constraints come in play
when ever we try to insert, delete or
update a record in a relation.
Not null ensures that we cannot leave a column as
null. That is a value has to be supplied for that
column.
e.g namevarchar(25)not null;
Unique constraint means that the values under that
column are always unique.
e.g Roll_no number(3) unique;
Primary key constraint means that a column can not
have duplicate values and not even a null value.
e.g. Roll_no number(3) primary key;
The main difference between unique and primary key
constraint is that a column specified as unique may
have null value but primary key constraint does not
allow null values in the column.
Foreign key is used to enforce referential integrity
and is declared as a primary key in some other table.
e.g cust_id varchar(5) references master(cust_id);
it declares cust_id column as a foreign key that refers
to cust_id field of table master. That means we
cannot insert that value in cust_id filed whose
corresponding value is not present in cust_id field of
master table.
Check constraint limits the values that can be inserted into a
column of a table.
e.g marks number(3) check(marks>=0);
The above statement declares marks to be of type number
and while inserting or updating the value in marks it is
ensured that its value is always greater than or equal to zero.

Default constraint is used to specify a default value to a

column of a table automatically. This default value will be used
when user doese.g balance number(5) default = 0;
not enter any value for that column.
CREATE TABLE student (
Roll_no number(3) primary key,
Name varchar(25) not null,
Class varchar(10),
Marks number(3) check(marks>0),
City varchar(25) );
 Data Modifications in SQL
After a table has been created using the create table
command, tuples can be inserted into the table, or tuples can
be deleted or modified.

INSERT Statement
The simplest way to insert a tuple into a table is to use the
insert statement
insert into <table> [(<column i, . . . , column j>)] values
(<value i, . . . , value j>);
INSERT INTO student VALUES(101,'Rohan','XI',400,'Jammu');

While inserting the record it should be checked that the values

passed are of same data types as the one which is specified for
that particular column.
For inserting a row interactively (from keyboard) & operator
can be used. e.g

INSERT INTO student VALUES

(&Roll_no’,’&Name’,’&Class’,’&Marks’,’&City’);

In the above command the values for all the columns are
read from keyboard and inserted into the table student.

NOTE:- In SQL we can repeat or re-execute the last

command typed at SQL prompt by typing “/” key and
pressing enter.
Roll_no Name Class Marks City
101 Rohan XI 400 Jammu
102 Aneeta Chopra XII 390 Udhampur
103 Pawan Kumar IX 298 Amritsar
104 Rohan IX 376 Jammu
105 Sanjay VIII 240 Gurdaspur
113 Anju Mahajan VIII 432 Pathankot
Queries:
To retrieve information from a database we can query the
databases. SQL SELECT statement is used to select rows and
columns from a database/relation.
SELECT Command
This command can perform selection as well as projection.

Selection: This capability of SQL can return you the tuples

form a relation with all the attributes.
SQL> SELECT * FROM student;
This command will display all the tuples in the relation student

•Projection: This is the capability of SQL to return only

specific attributes in the relation.
SQL> SELECT * FROM student WHERE Roll_no <=102;
This command display only those records whose Roll_no less
than or equal to 102.
Select command can also display specific attributes from a
relation.

SQL> SELECT name, class FROM student;

The above command displays only name and class attributes

from student table.

SQL>SELECT count(*) AS “Total Number of Records” FROM

student;

This command will display the total number of records with title
as “Total Number of Records” i.e an alias.
 Eliminating Duplicate/Redundant data
In a SQL query, Data is selected in all the rows
of a table, even if the data appearing in the result
gets duplicate.
DISTINCT keyword eleminate duplicate rows
from the results of a SELECT statement.

SQL> SELECT DISTINCT name FROM student;

The above command returns
Name
Rohan
Aneeta Chopra
Pawan Kumar
Sanjay
Anju Mahajan
 Selecting From All the Rows : ALL Keyword

ALL keyword is used to show the duplicate rows

in the results of a SELECT statement.

SQL> SELECT ALL name FROM student;

The above command returns
Name
Rohan
Aneeta Chopra
Pawan Kumar
Rohan
Sanjay
Anju Mahajan
 Reordering Columns in Query Results

While giving a querying, the result can be

obtained in any order. Eg.
SQL> SELECT ROLL_NO, NAME, CLASS, MARKS, CITY FROM STUDENT;

SQL> SELECT NAME, ROLL_NO, CLASS, MARKS, CITY FROM STUDENT;

SQL> SELECT NAME, ROLL_NO, CITY, CLASS, MARKS FROM STUDENT;

SQL> SELECT ROLL_NO, NAME, MARKS, CLASS, CITY FROM STUDENT;

SQL> SELECT CITY, ROLL_NO, NAME, CLASS, MARKS FROM STUDENT;

 PERFORMING CALCULATION IN SQL:
To facilitate the calculations via select statement,
SQL provides a dummy table [contain one row and
one column] “DUAL”.
SQL> SELECT 4 * 3 from DUAL;
SQL> SELECT sysdate from DUAL;
We can also use Scalar Expressions (arithmetic
operators) in select statement. SQL allow us to place
scalar expressions and constants among the
selected fields.
SQL>SELECT Roll_no, name, marks+20 FROM
student;
SQL> SELECT name, (marks/500)*100 FROM
student WHERE Roll_no > 103;
 Using Column Aliases in SQL query:
The Column that we select in a query can be given a
different name(column alias name) for output
purpose:
SQL>SELECT Roll_no, name, marks Final_marks
FROM student;

Handling NULL in SQL query:

The empty values are represented as NULL in a
table. When we see the record, having NULL values

SQL>SELECT Roll_no, name, marks FROM student

where marks IS NULL;
 Putting Text in the Query OUTPUT
We can insert text in the query output making it more
presentable.

SQL>SELECT Roll_no, name, (marks/500)*100 ‘%’

FROM student;

Concatenating Strings in SQL Output:

While making queries, we need to concatenate
character values or strings using concatenation
operator ‘||’.
SQL>SELECT Roll_no || ’-’ || name “RollNo and Name”, marks
FROM student;
 Selecting Specific Rows(WHERE Clause)
SQL enables us to define a criteria to determine
which rows are selected for output. The WHERE
clause in select statement specifies the criteria for
the selection of rows to be returned.
Syntax:

SELECT <column name>[<column name>, . . . . .

<column name>] FROM <Table name> WHERE
<condition>;

SQL> SELECT Roll_no,Name,Marks FROM student WHERE

Roll_no <=102;
 USING RELATIONAL OPERATORS
Relational Operators [=, >, <, <=, >=, <>] are used to
compare two values. The result of the comparison is
TRUE or FALSE.
SQL> SELECT * FROM student WHERE city<>’Jammu’;

USING LOGICAL OPERATORS

The Logical Operators [ AND/OR/NOT ]are used to
connect search condition in the where clause.

SQL> SELECT * FROM student WHERE (city=’Jammu’ OR

city=‘Pathankot’);
 Condition based on a range
SQL provides a BETWEEN operator that defines a range of
values that the column value must fall for the condition
to become true.

e.g. SELECT Roll_no, name FROM student WHERE

Roll_no BETWEEN 100 AND 103;

The above command displays Roll_no and name of those

students whose Roll_no lies in the range 100 to 103 (both
100 and 103 are included in the range).
 Conditions based on a list

To specify a list of values, IN operator is used.

This operator select values that match any value in

the given list.
e.g. SELECT * FROM student WHERE city IN
(‘Jammu’,’Amritsar’,’Gurdaspur’);
The above command displays all those records
whose city is either Jammu or Amritsar or
Gurdaspur.
 Conditions based on Pattern
SQL provides two wild card characters that are used while
comparing the strings with LIKE operator.
a. percent(%) Matches any string
b. Underscore(_) Matches any one character
> SELECT Roll_no, name, city FROM student WHERE
Roll_no LIKE “%3”;
This command displays those records where last digit of
Roll_no is 3 and may have any number of characters in
front.
>SELECT Roll_no, name, city FROM student WHERE
Roll_no LIKE “1_3”;
It displays those records whose Roll_no starts with 1 and
second letter may be any letter but ends with digit 3.
 ORDER BY Clause
ORDER BY clause is used to display the result of a query in
a specific order(sorted order).
The sorting can be done in ascending or in descending
order. It should be kept in mind that the actual data in the
database is not sorted but only the results of the query are
displayed in sorted order.
e.g. SELECT name, city FROM student ORDER BY name;
The above query returns name and city columns of table
student sorted by name in increasing/ascending order.
e.g. SELECT * FROM student ORDER BY city DESC;
It displays all the records of table student ordered by city
in descending order.
Note:-If order is not specifies that by default the sorting
will be performed in ascending order.
GROUP BY Clause
The GROUP BY clause can be used in a SELECT statement to collect
data across multiple records and group the results by one or more
columns.

The syntax for the GROUP BY clause is:

SELECT <Column(s)>, aggregate_function (expression) FROM tables

WHERE conditions GROUP BY <Column>;
aggregate_function can be a function such as SUM, COUNT, MAX,
MIN, AVG etc.

e.g SELECT name, COUNT(*) as "Number of employees"

FROM student WHERE marks>350 GROUP BY city;
HAVING Clause
The HAVING clause is used in combination with the GROUP BY clause.
It can be used in a SELECT statement to filter the records that a
GROUP BY returns.
The syntax for the HAVING clause is:
SELECT <Column(s)> FROM tables GROUP BY <column> HAVING
<condition(s)>;

e.g SELECT SUM(marks) as "Total marks“ FROM student

GROUP BY department HAVING ROLL_N0<105;

Note: select statement can contain only those attribute which are
already present in the group by clause.