Data Structures

Module 2
 Terminologies
 Data Types:
 Refer to the different kinds of data that a variable
may hold in a programming languages
 Examples:
 Integer
 Real
 Float
 Char
 String
 Data Objects:
 Refer to the set of elements
 Example: data object integer refers to
 D = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … }

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 Terminologies cont…
 Data Structures:
Describe the set of objects and how they are
related.
Describe the set of operations that can be
applied on the elements of a data object.
Typically this describe the more complex data
types such as arrays, stacks, queues, trees,
graphs and operations of how to manipulate
these.

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 Records
A structure that can have a number of
heterogeneous elements.

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 Records cont…
 Field1, field2, field3 … fieldN can be of any
data type (i.e. integer, float, real, record).
 To define a variable for the record:
RecordType A;
 Assigning a value to a record field:
A.field1 = <value>;
A.field2 = <value>;
 To retrieve a value from a record field:
printf(“%d”, A.field1);
printf(“%c”, A.field2);
printf(“%d:4:2”, A.field3);

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 Arrays
 Consecutive set of memory locations is a
set of pairs – index and a value finite,
ordered set of homogeneous elements.
 Forms:
one-dimensional array
n-dimensional array

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 Arrays cont…
 2 data types
Base type of component type
Index type
 Declaration
int A[10]; char B[45];
 2 basic operations
Extraction
Storing

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 Arrays cont…
 If an array is declared to be A[n], then:
n = number of elements
 If an array is declared to be A[n][m], then
n*m = number of elements
 if given n-dimensional array declaration
A[b][c][d]…[n] = Πb,c, … n

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 Arrays cont…
 To determine the ith element of a Single-
dimension array:
A[i] = α + (i) * esize
Where:
 α - base or starting address
 i – element
 esize – element size in bytes

 Example: Determine the address of 5th

element of an integer array A with a
starting address of 2000.

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 Arrays cont…
 To determine the ith element of a Two
dimension array:

A[i][j] = α + [(i)*(UB2)+(j)] * esize

Where:
 UB2 – upper bound of the 2nd dimension
 α - base or starting address
 esize – element size in bytes

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 Arrays cont…
 To determine the ith element of a Three
dimension array:

A[i][j][k]= α +[(i)*(UB2)*(UB3)+(j)*(UB3)+
(k)]*esize

Where:
 UB3 – upper bound of the 3rd dimension
 UB2 – upper bound of the 2nd dimension
 α - base or starting address
 esize – element size in bytes

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 Arrays cont…
Exercises:
 Given A[10][3][3][6], α =2000, esize=4
bytes:
 find the formula to represent an element in
a 4-dimensional array.
 find the total number of elements
 find the address of A[2][2][0][4]
 Given X[8][3][6][2][3], α =3000, esize=3
bytes:
 find the total number of elements
 find the address of X[0][2][5][1][2]

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 Arrays cont…
 Consider the following declaration:
typedef struct{
int A;
char B[10];
float C;
char D;
}rectype;
typedef rectype matrix[121][4][5];
matrix A1;
 compute the address of element A1[120][3][3]
given the base address at 2000.
 Assume that we do not know the size of RECTYPE
in number of bytes but we know that the address
of A1[20][2][3] is 2160. Give the size of RECTYPE in
bytes. Assume the base address is at 2000.

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 Stacks
 Stack - linearly ordered set of elements
having the last-in, first-out (LIFO) discipline
 An ordered list in which all insertions and
deletions are made at one end called the
TOP.

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 Stacks cont…
 Operations are done on top of the stack
only and we have no access to other
elements
 Basic operations: push and pop
 Representation: sequential or linked

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 Stacks cont…
 Operations
Insertion of new element onto the stack
(push)
Deletion of the top element from the stack
(pop)
Getting the size of stack
Checking for empty stack
Getting the top element without deleting it
from the stack

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 Stacks cont…
 Sequential Representation
Makes use of arrays
Stack is empty if top=-1 and full if top=n-1
Deletion from an empty stack causes an
underflow
Insertion onto a full stack causes an overflow

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 Stacks cont…

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 Stacks cont…

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 Stacks cont…

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 Stacks cont…
 Linked Representation
A linked list of stack nodes could be used to
implement a stack

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 Stacks cont…

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 Stacks cont…

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 Stacks cont…
Evaluation of Expressions
 Expression is made up of operands,
operators and delimiters.
 Operands can be any legal variable names
or constants in programming languages.
 Operations are described by operators:
Basic arithmetic operators: + - * /
Unary operators: - +
Relational operators: ==, >, <, >=, <=

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 Stacks cont…
 Our concern: how the expressions are
evaluated
 The compiler accepts expressions and
produce correct result by reworking the
expressions into postfix form. Other forms
include infix and prefix.
 Prefix : <Operator> <Operand1> <Operand2>
 Postfix : <Operand1> <Operand2>
<Operator>
 Infix : <Operand1> <Operator> <Operand2>

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 Stacks cont…
 Expression: A + B
Prefix : +AB
Postfix: AB+
 Expression: (A+B*C)/D
Prefix : /+A*BCD
Postfix: ABC*+D/

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 Stacks cont…
Conversion from Infix to Postfix using Stacks
In converting from infix to postfix, the following are the
rules:
1. The order of the operands in both forms is the same
whether or not parentheses are present in the infix
expression.
2. If the infix expression contains no parentheses, then the
order of the operators in the postfix expression is
according to their priority.
3. If the infix expression contains parenthesized sub
expressions, rule 2 applies for such sub expression.

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 Stacks cont…
 And the following are the priority numbers:
icp(x) - priority number when token x is an
incoming symbol (incoming priority)
isp(x) - priority number when token x is in the
stack (in-stack priority)

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 Stacks cont…
 The Algorithm:
1. Get the next token x.
2. If x is an operand, then output x
3. If x is the ( , then push x onto the stack.
4. If x is the ), then output stack elements until an ( is
encountered. Pop stack once more to delete the (.
If top = 0, the algorithm terminates.
5. If x is an operator, then while icp(x) <
isp(stack(top)), output stack elements; else, if
icp(x) > isp(stack(top)), then push x onto the stack.
6. Go to step 1.

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 Stacks cont…
 Convert a + ( b * c + d ) - f / g ^ h into its postfix
form using stack:

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 Stacks cont…
 Convert the following infix expressions to postfix
and prefix:
A+B*C/D
A/B^C+D*E-A*C
(A+B)*D+E/(F+A*D)+C
A+B*D^E^F^G/H^J*K-L
!(A&&!(B<C)||(C>D))||(C<E)
 Convert the following prefix expressions to infix:
-+-^ABC*D^EFG
^+-ABC+D-EF
|| || &&ABC!<=EF

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 Stacks cont…
 Convert the following postfix expressions to
infix:
AB+CDE-F+*G-/
AB-C+DEF-+^
AB&&C||EF<=!||
 Convert the following infix expressions to
postfix using stack:
B+C^(E+F*G^H)/(K-L/M)+N
B+C/D^(E+F*G^H)+Z
A+B-C*D*(E+F-G*H^I^J)+L/M+(N*O/P+
(Q^R^S^T))+U
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 Queues
 Queue - linearly ordered set of elements
having the first-in, first-out (FIFO) discipline
 Applications: job-scheduling, topological
sorting, graph traversals, etc.
 2 basic operations for data manipulation:
insertion at the rear (enqueue) and deletion
at the front (dequeue)

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 Queues cont…

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 Queues cont…
 Sequential Representation
Makes use of one-dimensional array/vector
Deletion from an empty queue causes an underflow
Insertion onto a full queue causes an overflow
Front points to the actual front element of the
queue while rear points to the cell immediately
after the rear element
Queue is empty if front=rear and full if front=0 and
rear=n
Initialization : front = 0; rear = 0
Insertion : Q[rear] = x; rear++;
Deletion : x = Q[front]; front++;

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 Queues cont…

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 Queues cont…

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 Queues cont…

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 Queues cont…
 Circular Queue
 Cells are considered arranged
in a circle
 front points to the actual
element at the front of the
queue
 rear points to the cell on the
right of the actual rear
element
 Full queue always has one
unused cell
 Initialization: front = 0, rear
=0
 Empty queue: if front == rear
 Full queue: if front == (rear
mod n)+1

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 Queues cont…

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 Queues cont…
 Linked Representation

Queue is empty if front = null

Overflow will happen only when the program
runs out of memory

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 Queues cont…
Application: Topological Sorting
 Topological sorting is problem involving
activity networks. It uses both sequential and
link allocation techniques in which the linked
queue is embedded in a sequential vector.
 It is a process applied to partially ordered
elements. The input is a set of pairs of partial
ordering and the output is the list of
elements, in which there is no element listed
with its predecessor not yet in the output.

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 Queues cont…
The Algorithm
 Input. A set of number pairs of the form (i,
j) for each relation i ≼ j could represent the
partial ordering of elements. The input
pairs could be in any order.
 Output. The algorithm will come up with a
linear sequence of items such that no item
appears in the sequence before its direct
predecessor.

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 Queues cont…
 Algorithm Proper. A requirement in topological sorting is
not to output the items with which the predecessors are
not yet in the output. To do this, there is a need to keep
track of the number of predecessors for every item. A
vector could be used for this purpose. Let's call this
vector COUNT. When an item is placed in the output,
the count of every successor of the item is
decremented. If the count of an item is zero, or it
becomes zero as a result of putting in the output all of
its predecessors, that would be the time it is considered
ready for output. To keep track of the successors, a
linked list named SUC, with structure (INFO, LINK), will
be used. INFO contains the label of the direct successor
while LINK points to the next successor, if any.

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 Queues cont…
 Example. Given the partial ordering of
seven elements, how can they be arranged
such that no element appears in the
sequence before its direct predecessor?
(0,1),(0,3 ),(0,5),(1,2),(1,5),(2,4),(3,2),(3,4),(5,4),(6,5),
(6,7),(7,1),(7,5)

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 Queues cont…
 Solution

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 Queues cont…
 Solution cont…

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The End!!!