Engineering Materials and Processes
Lecture 4 – Crystal Structure of Metals
Grains after
acid etching:
Wikipedia
Crystal Structure of Metals
Reference Text Section
Higgins RA & Bolton, 2010. Materials for Engineers and Technicians, Ch 4
5th ed, Butterworth Heinemann
Additional Readings Section
Sheedy, P. A, 1994. Materials : Their properties, testing and selection Ch 1
Callister, W. Jr. and Rethwisch, D., 2010, Materials Science and Ch 3
Engineering: An Introduction, 8th Ed, Wiley, New York.
Engineering Materials and Processes
Crystal Structure of Metals
Crystals are the lattice structure
that metal atoms form when they
become solid.
In engineering, crystals of metal are
called grains.
Grains in cast
aluminium
www.spaceflight.esa.int
Engineering Materials and Processes
Solid, Liquid, Gas
Everything can exist as either solid, liquid or
gas. (state). This depends on temperature
and pressure.
Mercury freezes at -9°C and boils (to form a
gas or vapour) at 357°C at 1 atm.
Liquid Mercury: Wikipedia
At the other end of the scale,
tungsten melts at 3410°C and
Mercury vapour streetlights: theage.com.au boils at 5930°C.
Engineering Materials and Processes
Classification of Materials by
State
• Solid: Rigid structure of atoms (or molecules). A regular pattern of
atoms is called a crystal (ceramics) or a grain (metals). Random is
called amorphous (some plastics). Low temperature all materials
freeze (become solid).
• Liquid: A liquid is a substance that flows (fluid) but does not
compress easily. Solids become liquid when heated to their melting
point (fusion)
• Gas: A gas is a compressible fluid, that expands to fill its
container. At high temperature all materials vapourise to a gas.
Engineering Materials and Processes
Melting / Boiling of
Elements
www.ptable.com
Engineering Materials and Processes
Kinetic Theory of Gases
In any gas, the particles (whether atoms or
molecules) are in constant motion. As these
particles bounce off the walls it pushes them
– which makes pressure exerted by the gas.
As the temperature increases, the velocity
and number of impacts increases, so the
average pressure on the wall of the vessel
increases.
This is the kinetic theory of gases.
Gas Animation
Volume vs temperature
Tim Lovett 2012
Engineering Materials and Processes
Gas to Liquid. (Metal Vapour Condensing)
The temperature of a metal vapour (gas) falls until it reaches the boiling
point where it starts to turn into liquid (condense).
In a liquid the atoms are randomly mixed together and are free to slide
around. The atoms are held together only by weak forces of attraction at
this stage, the liquid lacks cohesion and will flow.
Gas Animations: Tim Lovett 2012
Engineering Materials and Processes
Liquid to Solid. (Solidification)
To turn the liquid metal into solid, each atom must lose more energy.
For a pure metal this occurs at a fixed temperature (melting point).
During solidification, the atoms arrange themselves according to some
regular pattern, or 'lattice structure' which is called a crystal – or in the case
of metals – a grain.
Each atom is now connected to
its neighbours like springs. This
spring stiffness causes the
Modulus of Elasticity E.
Lava Solidification:
http://www.geol.umd.edu
Engineering Materials and Processes
Shrinkage Metal
Contraction
(%)
Atoms in a solid fit closer together than in Grey cast iron 0.7 to 1.05
a liquid, so shrinkage occurs.
White cast iron 2.1
Malleable iron 1.5
A few substances expand when they
solidify because they have a very loose Steel 2.0
packing arrangement. E.g. Water (ice), Brass 1.4
and Silicon. Alluminium 1.8
Aluminium alloys 1.3 to 1.6
Bronze 1.05 to 2.1
Magnesium 1.8
Zinc 2.5
Manganese steel 2.6
Based on;
http://www.calculatoredge.com
Titanic iceberg (maybe): Wikipedia
Engineering Materials and Processes
Latent Heat
A pure metal solidifies at a fixed
temperature (melting point).
The liquid resists cooling below the
melting point until the liquid has
solidified. This requires removal of
the Latent Heat. This energy is
called the latent heat of fusion
(solidification in this case).
Alloys (metal mixtures) can have a
range of melting temperatures.
Higgins: Fig 4.1
Engineering Materials and Processes
Crystals
During solidification,
the atoms fit into a
regular pattern, or
'lattice structure'
called a crystal.
(or a metal grain).
In a 2D plane, the
tightest arrangement
is like a honeycomb.
(based on 120o).
http://www.chem.ufl.edu/~itl/2045/lectures/lec_h.html
Engineering Materials and Processes
Crystals
In 3D, the common
crystal packing
arrangements are;
BCC, FCC and
HCP.
FCC and HCP pack
the closest, while
BCC packs slightly
less dense (by a
few %).
Higgins: Fig 4.2
Engineering Materials and Processes
Crystals
The unit structures of the 3 Lattice structures: Part 1
crystal structures are a bit thechemprofessor
misleading.
Local (mp4)
They are different SIZES!
The packing difference is
only a few %.
Crystals
Univ of Florida
A very 3 dimensional
problem, so best explained Local
in 3D video.
Engineering Materials and Processes
Allotropy of Iron
Iron is polymorphic -
it forms more than
one crystalline form
(allotropes of Iron).
The two main crystal
structures are;
BCC (a-iron)
FCC (g-iron) above
910°C.
BCC body-centred cubic FCC above 910°C
Iron (a-iron) (g-iron).
Engineering Materials and Processes
Iron BCC vs FCC Iron
Since FCC is tighter than BCC, there is a sudden volume change during
quenching. This can cause internal stresses, distortion or even cracking of
the component.
But, it is also the
reason steel can
be heat treated
at all… making it
by far the most
important metal
in engineering.
Need to quench
with care.
Cracking of steel due to quenching
Engineering Materials and Processes
Dendritic solidification
As the molten pure metal cools below its freezing point,
crystallisation will begin.
It starts out with a single unit – (e.g. BCC for Tungsten).
New atoms will join the 'seed crystal' and grow onto the BCC Unit: Higgins Fig 4.3
structure much like a snowflake (except the metal is
forming in liquid, not a cloud of droplets).
The branched
crystal is called a Snowflake: Wikipedia
'dendrite‘ (Greek
for tree).
Higgins Fig 4.4
Engineering Materials and Processes
Dendrite of Silver: Wikipedia
Engineering Materials and Processes
Dendrites to Grains
Each dendrite forms independently, so
the outer arms of neighbouring
dendrites make contact with each
other at irregular angles and this leads
to the irregular overall shape of
crystals.
Grains form
random Grains after
orientations acid etching:
Wikipedia Wikipedia
Engineering Materials and Processes
Impurities
Above:
Dendritic formation of
grains.
Below:
Etched metal showing
dendritic structure with
porosity where molten
metal was not
available to fill the
voids.
openlearn.open.ac.uk The jumbled, chaotic area between grains. The
irregular nature of the grain boundary is one
source of creep in metals but it is a barrier to
dislocation mobility. www.spaceflight.esa.int
Grains
A section through a cast aluminium
ingot, polished and etched in acid.
The crystals are all the same (pure
aluminium), but each crystal lattice is
randomly tilted and so reflects the light
differently. This is why they look bright
or dark.
Note a metal “grain” is not like the
“grain” in wood. It means crystal.
Grains in cast
aluminium
www.spaceflight.esa.int
Engineering Materials and Processes
Grain Boundaries
In pure metals, dentrites
disappear once solidification is
complete.
If impurities were in the melt, they
may get left out of the growing
grain and end up at the grain
boundaries.
This is why a small amount of
impurity can destroy the
mechanical properties – causing
brittleness and cracks along the
crystal boundaries. The jumbled, chaotic area between grains. The
irregular nature of the grain boundary is one
source of creep in metals but it is a barrier to
dislocation mobility. www.spaceflight.esa.int
Engineering Materials and Processes
Grain Boundaries
Bubble raft demonstrating grains
in a metal under stress.
Each bubble represents an atom.
Under low stress, atoms stretch
elastically.
With higher deformation plastic
deformation occurs. The bubble
You Tube Offline (mp4)
raft rearranges by dislocation
motion.
From TLP: Introduction to dislocations,
http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/doitpoms/tlplib/dislocations/dislocatio
n_motion.php
Courtesy of DoITPoMS, The University of Cambridge. Released
under Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial-Share
Alike licence
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.0/uk/
Engineering Materials and Processes
Porosity
Porosity occurs because the casting
shrinks on solidification.
High pressure can fix this, but it makes
the mould very expensive.
Another way is to use a reservoir of
molten metal that feeds more liquid as it
solidifies.
In this low pressure casting, aluminium alloy was
poured down the runner into the mould. The
hollow in the top of the runner caused by liquid
flowing from the runner into the mould as the
casting solidified. As well as the hollow at the top,
you can see some holes in the runner and one
hole within the casting itself. The runners and
risers will later be cut off and discarded.
http://openlearn.open.ac.uk
Engineering Materials and Processes
Cooling rates and
grain size
Slow cooling = more time to
form = larger grains.
Rapid cooling = fine grains.
For the same metal grain, finer
grains are stronger and tougher.
Grains are typically 0.1 to 100
microns.
Note: This is NOT referring to
Grain size vsd yield strength. Low C steel.
quenching of Carbon steel.
Quenching produces a different type W.O. Alexander, G.J. Davies, K.A. Reynolds and E.J.
Bradbury: Essential metallurgy for engineers, p63-71. 1985.
of grain - Martensite. Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK) Co. Ltd. ISBN: 0-442-30624-5
Engineering Materials and Processes
Grain Growth
If solid metal is
above a certain
temperature
(recrystalisation),
certain grains will
grow at the
expense of their
neighbours.
Growth of a grain structure
You Tube http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/grainGr
owth/2dcomputersimulation.php
Courtesy of DoITPoMS, The University
of Cambridge. Released under Creative
Offline (mp4) Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial-
Share Alike licence
Engineering Materials and Processes
Cooling of a large casting
When a large ingot solidifies, the outer
skin cools rapidly (small grains).
Cooling then travels inwards, creating
inward grain growth. (Columnar)
The left over molten metal at the centre,
cools slowly (large grains). Cooling in all
directions, so equi-axed.
So the grain structure makes castings weak.
Zones of different crystal forms in
an ingot. Higgins Figure 4.12
Engineering Materials and Processes
Make sense now?
Grains in cast
aluminium
www.spaceflight.esa.int
Engineering Materials and Processes
Forging
Forging improves
steel – because it
mixes up the bad
grain structure of
a casting.
Forging of Samurai sword.
You Tube http://www.roninkatana.com
Offline (mp4)
Engineering Materials and Processes
Rapid solidification (Higgins 4.5.1)
By cooling fast enough, tiny
crystals are formed – or
even none at all. (glassy
metal)
Any impurities dispersed in
the melt will remain so in
the amorphous solid.
The metal is more uniform
in composition, stronger and
tougher, but still malleable
and ductile.
But cooling so fast (a million
o
C per sec) means only very
thin bits have been made. Amorphous (Glassy) Metals
http://metallurgyfordummies.com/amorphous-metal/
Engineering Materials and Processes
Glassy Metal
'Melt Spinning' or 'Splat
quenching' to produce
metallic glass ribbon.
Molten tin alloy is fed
through several nozzles
onto a rotating metal
drum, resulting in
extremely high cooling
rates (approx. 1 million
Kelvin per second). You Tube Offline
High speed photography
at 4000 fps. From TLP: Casting,
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib-dev2008/casting/casting_ot
her.php
DoITPoMS, The University of Cambridge.
Engineering Materials and Processes
VIDEO: Crystals and Grain Structure
Properties and Grain Structure BBC (1973)
What is a grain?
Recrystalisation
Engineering Materials and Processes
Online Properties Resources.
Graphical comparison of materials properties.
DoITPoMS: Dissemination of IT for the Promotion of Materials Science
Wikipedia: Materials properties
Metal Grains and processing
Lattice Structure BCC, FCC,HCP
Engineering Materials and Processes
GLOSSARY
Allotropy
Amorphous
Anisotropy
Body-centred cubic (BCC)
Coordination number
Crystalline
Face-centred cubic (FCC)
Grain
Grain boundary
Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
Isotropic
Lattice
Noncrystalline
Polycrystalline
Polymorphism
Single crystal
Unit cell
Engineering Materials and Processes
QUESTIONS
Callister: Ch3 (Mostly about calculating atomic packing factors - too esoteric)
Moodle XML: Some questions in 10102 Classification and 10105 Steel
1. Define all the glossary terms.
2. What is the difference between atomic structure and crystal structure?
3. What is a dendrite?
4. Explain why ice floats.
5. As a pure metal constantly cools, what happens to the temperature at the
melting point? Explain.
6. Determine the coordination number (number of direct neighbours) for BCC, FCC
and HCP lattice packing.
7. As pure iron cools, at 910oC it switches from ….. lattice to …..
8. Explain why grain size is important in engineering metals, and which is best.
Engineering Materials and Processes
