Methods of Data Collection

Introduction
• The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been
defined and research design/plan has been marked.
• Two types of data viz., Primary Data and Secondary Data.
• The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first
time, and thus happen to be original in character.
• The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already
been collected by someone else and which have already been passed
through the statistical process.
 Collection of Data
• Primary data collection is required during the course of doing
experiments in an experimental research.
• In case of the descriptive type of research perform surveys, whether
sample surveys or census surveys, then we can obtain primary data
either through observation or through direct communication with
respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews
 Methods of Collecting Primary Data
(i) observation method (ii) interview method
(iii) through questionnaires (iv) through schedules
(v) other methods which include
(a) warranty cards; (b) distributor audits;
(c) pantry audits; (d) consumer panels;

(e) using mechanical devices; (f) through projective techniques; (g)

depth interviews, and (h) content analysis.
 Observation Method
• used method specially in studies relating to behavioural sciences.
• In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation
is not scientific observation.
• Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data
collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research
purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to
checks and controls on validity and reliability.
• the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent.
 Advantages
• The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if
observation is done accurately.
• Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions
or attitudes.
• Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as
such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents
as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method.
• This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e.,
respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one
reason or the other
 limitations
• Firstly, it is an expensive method.
• Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited.
• Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely
accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to
collect data effectively.
 Type of Observations
• structured observation
• unstructured observation
• participant observation
• non-participant observation
• disguised observation
• controlled and uncontrolled observation
 Interview Method

• The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-

verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
• It can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through
telephone interviews.
 Type of Interviews
• structured interviews
• unstructured interviews
• focussed interview
• clinical interview and
• the non-directive interview.
 Advantages
(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of
the respondents; the interview method can be made to yield an almost
perfect sample of the general population.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to
restructure questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured
interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal
answers to various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
(vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the
missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the
questions. This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired,
group discussions may also be Held.
(viii) The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the
most spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is
used.
(ix) The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational
level of the person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning
questions can be avoided.
(x) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the
respondent’s personal characteristics and environment which is often of great
value in interpreting results.
 Limitations
(i) It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread
geographical sample is taken.
(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that
of the respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and
control of interviewers.
(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives
or people in high income groups may not be easily approachable under
this method and to that extent the data may prove inadequate.
(iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the
sample is large and recalls upon the respondents are necessary
(v) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the
respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary
information just to make the interview interesting.
(vi) Under the interview method the organisation required for selecting,
training and supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable
problems.
(vii) Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
(viii) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents
that would facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very
difficult requirement.
 Telephone interviews

• This method of collecting information consists in contacting

respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method,
but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in
developed regions.
 Advantages
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per
response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method;
the non-response is generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to
respondents.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to
respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot
be contacted for one reason or the other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
 Limitations
1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview
period is not likely to exceed five minutes in most cases.
2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost
considerations.
4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers
are required to various questions.
5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to
handle.
Collection of Data through Questionnaires
• This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big
enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private
and public organisations and even by governments.
• In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned
with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.
• A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite
order on a form or set of forms.
• The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the
purpose in the questionnaire itself.
• The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
• Study the main aspects of a questionnaire viz., the general form, question
sequence and question formulation and wording.
 Advantages
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely
spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in
respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached
conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made
more dependable and reliable.
 Limitations
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-
response is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the
approach once questionnaires have been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies
altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly
representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
 Collection of Data Through Schedules
• This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data
through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that
schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in
by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.
• These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to
them the questions from the proforma in the order the questions are
listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the
proforma.
• This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up
schedules or assisting respondents to fill up schedules and as such
enumerators should be very carefully selected.
• The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the
nature and scope of the investigation should be explained to them
thoroughly so that they may well understand the implications of
different questions put in the schedule.
• This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries
and can lead to fairly reliable results.
• It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations
conducted by governmental agencies or by some big organisations.
• Population census all over the world is conducted through this
method.
 Collection of Secondary Data
• Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer
to the data which have already been collected and analysed by
someone else.
• When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he has to look into
various sources from where he can obtain them.
• In this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are
usually associated with the collection of original data.
• Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.
• Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. He must
make a minute scrutiny because it is just possible that the secondary
data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the context of the
problem which the researcher wants to study.
• Following characteristics need to be checked:
1. Reliability of data
2. Suitability of data
3. Adequacy of data
 Selection of Appropriate Method for Data
Collection
1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry
2. Availability of funds
3. Time factor
4. Precision required
 Case Study Method
• The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis
and involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be
that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even the
entire community.
• The case study deals with the processes that take place and their
interrelationship. It is essentially an intensive investigation of the
particular unit under consideration.
• The object of the case study method is to locate the factors that
account for the behaviour-patterns of the given unit as an integrated
totality.
 Characteristics
1. Under this method the researcher can take one single social unit or
more of such units for his study purpose; he may even take a situation to
study the same comprehensively.
2. Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is studied in minute
details. Generally, the study extends over a long period of time to ascertain
the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough information for
drawing correct inferences.
3. In the context of this method we make complete study of the social unit
covering all facets. Through this method we try to understand the complex
of factors that are operative within a social unit as an integrated totality.
4 Under this method the approach happens to be qualitative and not
quantitative. Every possible effort is made to collect information
concerning all aspects of life. As such, case study deepens our
perception and gives us a clear insight into life.
5. In respect of the case study method an effort is made to know the
mutual interrelationship of causal factors.
6. Under case study method the behaviour pattern of the concerning
unit is studied directly and not by an indirect and abstract approach.
7. Case study method results in fruitful hypotheses along with the data
which may be helpful in testing them, and thus it enables the
generalised knowledge to get richer and richer. In its absence,
generalised social science may get handicapped.
 Major phases involved
(i) Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon to be
investigated or the unit of attention.
(ii) Collection of data, examination and history of the given phenomenon.
(iii) Diagnosis and identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial
or developmental treatment.
(iv) Application of remedial measures i.e., treatment and therapy (this
phase is often characterized as case work).
(v) Follow-up programme to determine effectiveness of the treatment
applied.
• Advantages
• Limitations