CSC 455

Computer Graphics
Lecture 2 (Part 2)
Hardware and Software in
Computer Graphics
Development of Hardware
• Hardware evolution had a greater influence in the
development of Computer Graphics than software
• In the early years interactive graphics was beyond the
recourses of most organizations because of:
• the high cost of computer graphics hardware.
• the need for expensive computing recourses to support massive design
databases, interactive picture manipulation,
• the difficulty of writing large, interactive programs at a time when both
graphics and interaction were new to programmers,
• non-portable software – written for a particular display device without
software-engineering principles and structured systems. Moving to
new display devices necessitates expensive and time-consuming
rewriting of working programs.
• After the development of graphics-based personal computers
(Apple Macintosh, IBM PC) hardware and software cost was driven
down, and millions of graphics computers were sold for office and
home use.
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Hardware and Software in Computer

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Video Display Devices
• Cathode-ray tube (CRT)

• Working of CRT

Focusing
System
Base Y deflect

Phosphor

Connector
Pins
x deflect

Control 3
Electron grid
Gun voltage
Hardware and Software in Computer
Graphics
Cathode Ray Tube
• Basic Operation
• The electron gun emits a beam of electrons (cathode
rays).
• The electron beam passes through focusing and
deflection systems that direct it towards specified
positions on the phosphor-coated screen.
• When the beam hits the screen, the phosphor emits a
small spot of light at each position contacted by the
electron beam.
• Because the light emitted by the
phosphor fades very quickly some
method is needed for maintaining Intensity distribution of
an illuminated phosphor
the screen picture spot on a CRT screen
• Redraw the picture by quickly directing the electron beam
back over the same screen points
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Hardware and Software in Computer

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Cathode Ray Tube
• Phosphor Persistence
• There are different kind of phosphors for use in a CRT.
Besides color, a major difference is their persistence –
how long they continue to emit light after the CRT beam is
removed
• A phosphor with low-persistence is useful in animation
• A high-persistence phosphor is useful for displaying
highly complex, static pictures
• Graphics monitors are usually constructed with a
persistence in the range from 10 to 60 microseconds

Hardware and Software in Computer

Graphics
Cathode Ray Tube
• Phosphor Persistence

• Phosphor Persistence. Measure of the time for a phosphor's brightness to

drop to one-tenth of its initial value; the tendency of a phosphor to
continue to emit light when no longer excited by an electron beam. The
higher the persistence, the better the quality of the display.

• The intensity is greater at the center of the spot, and it decreases

with Gaussian distribution out to the edges of the spot
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Hardware and Software in Computer

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Cathode Ray Tube
• Resolution
• The maximum number of points (pixels) that can be displayed without
overlap on a screen is referred to as the resolution, and determines the
detail that can be seen in an image.
• A more precise definition is the number of points per centimeter that
can be plotted horizontally and vertically, although it is often simply
stated as the total number of points in each direction (i.e. 1280  1024).
• The physical size of a graphics monitor, on the other hand, is given as
the length (in inches diagonally) of the screen diagonal.

The relative sizes of

these common
display resolutions
(note that the images
are not to scale),
(https://vimeo.com/b
log/post/the-basics-
7
of-image-resolution)

Hardware and Software in Computer

Graphics
Cathode Ray Tube
• Aspect Ratio
• The aspect ratio gives the ratio of horizontal points to vertical points
necessary to produce equal-length lines in both directions on the
screen. So 4:3 (most common) means that a horizontal line plotted with
4 points has the same length as a vertical line plotted with 3 points

Picture Aspect Ratio (Windows), MSDN - Microsoft

Hardware and Software in Computer

Graphics
Cathode Ray Tube
• Raster-Scan Displays
• The electron beam is swept across the screen one row at a time from
top to bottom
• Electron beam moves across each row and the beam intensity is turned
on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots
• Picture definition
is stored in a
memory area
called the refresh
buffer or frame
buffer

A raster –scan system displays

an object as a set of discrete points
across each scan line

Hardware and Software in Computer

Graphics
Cathode Ray Tube
• Frame Buffer
• It holds the set of intensity values for all the screen
• Stored intensity values are then retrieved and from the
refresh buffer and “painted” on the screen one row at a time
0 800
0
x

pixel at address (x,y) spot at (x,y)

600
y
Frame buffer Display surface
10
at (800,600)
Hardware and Software in Computer
Graphics
Cathode Ray Tube
• Frame Buffer
• The depth (or intensity) of the frame buffer, defined as the number of
bits that are used for each pixel, determines properties such as how
many colors can be represented on a given system
• 1-bit-deep frame buffer allows 21 colors (black and
white)
• 8-bit-deep frame buffer allows 28 (=256) colors
• In full color systems (also called RGB-color systems), there are 24 (or
more) bits per pixel in order to display sufficient colors to represent
most images realistically

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Hardware and Software in Computer

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Cathode Ray Tube
• Bitmap
• On a black and white system with one bit per pixel, the frame buffer is
commonly called a bitmap
• For systems with multiple bits per pixel the frame buffer is often
referred to as a pixmap

1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Frame buffer Pixels 12

1 bit frame buffer
Hardware and Software in Computer
Graphics
Cathode Ray Tube
• Refresh Rate
• The number of times per second the image is redrawn.
• The entire contents of the frame buffer are displayed on
the CRT at a rate high enough to avoid flicker. This rate is
called the refresh rate.
• For a human to see a steady image on most CRT displays,
the same path must be retraced, or refreshed, by the beam
at least 60 times per second.
• Current raster-scan displays perform refreshing at the rate
of 60 to 80 frames per second, although some systems
now have refresh rates of up to 120 frames per second.
• Refresh rates are described in units of cycles per second,
or Hertz (Hz), where a cycle corresponds to one frame (i.e.
a refresh rate of 60 frames per second = 60 Hz) 13

Hardware and Software in Computer

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Cathode Ray Tube
• Interlaced Raster Scan Displays
• Odd/even scan lines covered in successive refresh cycles.
• Hence 30 frames/sec refresh rate appears like 60 frames/sec

0
1
2
3
4
5
6

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Hardware and Software in Computer

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Cathode Ray Tube
• Random-Scan Display (Vector Display)
• The electron beam is directed only to parts of the screen where
the picture is to be drawn
• Picture is stored as a set of point- and line-drawing commands
with (x,y) or (x,y,z) endpoint coordinates, as well as character-
plotting commands.
• Refresh rate depends on the number of lines to be displayed. To
avoid flicker it must be at least 30 times per second (30 Hz).
• They are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture
30 to 60 times per second – more than 60 could burn the
phosphor.
• High quality vector systems are capable of handling
approximately 100,000 lines at this refresh rate.
• They are designed for line drawing applications and cannot
display realistic shaded images 15

Hardware and Software in Computer

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 Frame
• Frame. In the computer world, a frame can be many different
things. ... In these programs, frames are rectangular areas
meant for inserting graphics and text. They allow users to
place objects wherever they want to on the page. In video
and animation, frames are individual pictures in a sequence of

Hardware and Software in

Computer Graphics
images.

16
Cathode Ray Tube
• Random-Scan Display (Vector Display)

MoveTo (300,800)
LineTo (700,800)
LineTo (500,300)
LineTo (300,800)

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Hardware and Software in Computer

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Cathode Ray Tube
• Raster-Scan Vs Random-Scan Display

Ideal line drawing Raster scan Random scan

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Hardware and Software in Computer

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Cathode Ray Tube
• Color CRT
• A CRT displays color pictures
by using a combination of
phosphors that emit different
color light
• By combining the emitted light
from the different phosphors,
a range of colors can be
generated
• Each pixel in a color image has a “color value” which
is a combination of amounts of red, green and blue.
• Each pixel value is an ordered triple, such as
(23,14, 51), that prescribes the densities of the
red, green and blue.
• Each value in the triple (RGB) has a certain number
of bits, and color depth is the sum of these values. 19

Hardware and Software in Computer

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Cathode Ray Tube
• Color CRT
• Two basic techniques for producing color displays with CRT are
• Beam-penetration method
• Shadow-mask method

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Hardware and Software in Computer

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Cathode Ray Tube
• Beam-Penetration Method
• The beam-penetration method for displaying color pictures has been
used with random-scan monitors.
• Two layers of phosphor, usually red and green, are coated onto the
inside of the CRT screen, and the displayed color depends on how far
the electron beam enter into the phosphor layers.
• A beam of very fast electrons go through the red layer and excites the
inner green layer.
• The speed of the electrons, and hence the screen color at any point, is
controlled by the beam-acceleration voltage.
• Advantage : Beam penetration has been an inexpensive way to produce
color in random-scan monitors,
• Dis-Advantage: but only four colors are possible, and the quality of
pictures is not as good as with other methods.
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Hardware and Software in Computer

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Cathode Ray Tube
• Shadow-Mask Method
• Three electron guns
• A metal shadow mask to differentiate the beams

Operation of a
delta-delta, shadow
mask CRT.
Three electron
guns, aligned with
the triangular
color-dot patterns
on the screen, are
directed to
each dot triangle
by a shadow mask 22

Hardware and Software in Computer

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Cathode Ray Tube
• Shadow-Mask Method
• A shadow-mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel
position.
• One phosphor dot emits a red light, another emits a green light, and the
third emits a blue light.
• The Shadow mask in the previous image is known as the delta-delta
shadow-mask.
• The 3 beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask and activate a dot
triangle, which appears as a small color spot on the screen.

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Hardware and Software in Computer

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Graphics System
• Raster Scan Systems
• Employs a special purpose processor called video controller or display controller in
addition to CPU
• Frame buffer can be anywhere in the system memory
• More sophisticated raster systems employ other processors as coprocessors and
accelerators

Architecture of a
simple raster
graphics system

Architecture of a
raster system with a fixed
24
portion of system memory
reserved for frame buffer
Hardware and Software in Computer
Graphics
Graphics System
• Raster Scan Systems
• Employs a special purpose processor called video controller or display controller in
addition to CPU
• Frame buffer can be anywhere in the system memory
• More sophisticated raster systems employ other processors as coprocessors and
accelerators

25
Architecture of a raster graphics system with display processor
Hardware and Software in Computer
Graphics
 Graphics System (Video-controllerrefreshoperations)

•Two registers are used to store the coordinates of the screen pixels.
•Initially, the x register is set to 0 and the y register is set to Ymax, The value stored
in the frame buffer for this pixel position is then retrieved and used to set the
intensity of the CRT beam.
•Then the x register is incremented by 1, and the process repeated for the next pixel
on the top scan line. This procedure is repeated for each pixel along the scan line.
•After the last pixel on the top scan line
has been processed, the x register is reset

Hardware and Software in

Computer Graphics
to 0 and the y register is decremented by
1.
•Pixels along this scan line are then
processed in turn, and the procedure is
repeated for each successive scan line.
•After cycling through all pixels along the
bottom scan line (y = O), the video
controller resets the registers to the first
pixel position on the top scan line and the 26
refresh process starts over.1
Basic video-controller refresh operations
 Graphics System (Random Scan Systems)
An application program is input and stored

in the system memory along with a

graphics package.
Graphics commands in the application
program are translated by the graphics
package into a display file stored in the

Hardware and Software in

Computer Graphics
system memory.
This display file is then accessed by the
display processor to refresh the screen.
The display processor cycles through each
command in the display file program once
during every refresh cycle.
Sometimes the display processor in a random-scan system is referred to as a
display processing unit or a graphics controller. 27
Flat Panel Displays
• All flat panel displays are raster refresh displays.
• Divided into two categories:
• Active – light emitting discharge (e.g. Flat CRTs, Plasma-gas)
• Passive – light modulating (e.g. Liquid crystal)

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Hardware and Software in Computer

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Flat CRT
• Initially projecting the electron beam parallel to the screen and then
reflecting it through 90º.
• It has all the performance advantages of the conventional CRT.
• Available only in small sizes.

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Hardware and Software in Computer

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Plasma or Gas Discharge Display
• Plasma is a state of matter that is often thought of as a subset
of gases, but the two states behave very differently. ... But
unlike ordinary gases, plasmas are made up of atoms in which
some or all of the electrons have been stripped away and
positively charged nuclei, called ions, roam freely.

Hardware and Software in

Computer Graphics
• When neutral gas atom gets heated in high temperature
,electron gets excited and positive charge neutron and
negative charge electron are formed. Finally,this plasma state
forms consist of ionized gases.

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Plasma or Gas Discharge Display
• Working of Plasma display
• Consists of a matrix of cells (the raster) in a glass envelope. Each cell is
filled with a gas (usually neon, or a neon/argon mixture) at low
pressure (below atmospheric).
• When a sufficiently high voltage is applied the gas dissociates, i.e.
electrons are stripped from the atoms. The dissociated gas is called a
plasma, hence the name plasma display.
• When the electrons recombine, energy is released in the form of
photons; and the gas glows.
• Plasma displays have large size and are high resolution displays (100
pixels/inch).

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Hardware and Software in Computer

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 Hardware and Software in
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Computer Graphics
Liquid-Crystal Display
• Working of LCD
• Consists of an electrically
-controlled light-polarizing
liquid trapped in cells
between two transparent
polarizing sheets.
• An electric current passed
through the liquid causes
the crystals to align or not
so that light can/cannot pass
through them.
• Each crystal, therefore, is
like a shutter, either allowing
light to pass through or
blocking the light
• Backlight is applied using
solid-state electronic devices
• Colors are displayed by
placing a triad of color pixels
at any screen location 33
(Hearn & Baker: page 68)
Hardware and Software in Computer
Graphics
 Liquid-Crystal Display

Hardware and Software in

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 Various forms of Liquid-Crystal

Hardware and Software in

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Computer Graphics
 OLED
• Current goes from cathode to anode
• Electrons find holes in the organic layer
• Electron settles, causing photon emission
• Color depends on organic layer
• Intensity depends on current

Hardware and Software in

Computer Graphics
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OLED
• Organic Light Emitting Diode displays are made by placing a series of
organic thin films between two conductors.
• When electrical current is applied, a bright light is emitted.
• OLEDs are emissive display that do not require a backlight and so are
thinner and more efficient than LCD displays (which do require a white
backlight).
• OLED provides the
true black color unlike LCD,
best image quality and can also
be made transparent, flexible ,
foldable and even roll-able
(www.oled-info.com)

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Hardware and Software in Computer

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 OLED

Hardware and Software in

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Computer Graphics
CRT Vs LCD
• Physical Size, Weight – An LCD has one third the size of a CRT, and it is
much lighter.
• Display Size – LCDs are sized by their actual viewable diagonal
measurement, but CRTs are not. E.g. the viewable area on a 17" LCD
monitor will measure 17" diagonally, but the viewable area on a CRT
monitor will only measure 16" diagonally.
• Colors – Most CRT monitors are capable of displaying unlimited colors.
Some LCD monitors are only capable of hundreds or thousands of colors,
but many of the newer LCD's are capable of unlimited colors.
• Resolution – CRT monitors are usually capable of displaying multiple video
resolutions, each with the same quality. LCD monitors, however, usually
have what is called a Native resolution, or the resolution that it displays
best. The native resolution is generally the highest resolution that the LCD
can display.

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Hardware and Software in Computer

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CRT Vs LCD
• Viewing Angle –A CRT screen can be looked
at from a very wide angle, practically from
the side, but an LCD monitor typically has a
smaller viewing angle. From the side, the
image on an LCD screen can seem to
disappear, or invert colours. Newer displays
that are coming out have wider viewing angles
• Brightness is not a concern with CRT monitors. LCD monitors have different
levels of brightness. The brightness rating for an LCD monitor is commonly
referred to as 'nits', and commonly range from 70 to 300 nits. The higher the nits,
the brighter the display.
• Power Consumption and Radiation Emission – LCD monitors consume much
less energy than CRT monitors. Secondly, CRT monitors are known to emit
harmful radiation, whereas LCD monitors do not.
• Price – CRT monitors are more affordable than LCD monitors. However the
LCD’s cost have come down quite a lot in the last years. An LCD monitor will
cost more but will conserve energy in the long run. The energy savings may not
be much for an individual user, but with a corporation the energy savings might
be more of an issue. 40

Hardware and Software in Computer

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Input Devices
1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Trackball
4. Spaceball
5. Joysticks
6. Data Glove
6
7. Digitizers
8. Image Scanner
9. Touch Panels
10. Light Pens
11. Voice Systems
12. Printer
1. Laser Printer
2. Ink Jet Printer
3. Pen Plotter

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Graphics Software
• General Programming Package
• Provides an extensive set of graphics functions that can be used in high-level
programming languages like C or FORTRAN
• Basic functions in a general package include those for generating picture
components like straight lines, polygons, circles and others. Setting color and
intensity values, selecting views and applying transformations
• Example: OpenGL

• Special purpose Application Package

• Designed for non programmers
• Users can generate displays without worrying about how graphics operations
work
• The interface to the graphics routines in such packages allows user to
communicate with the programs
• Example: painting programs, CAD systems

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