Data Mining:

Concepts and Techniques

(3rd ed.)

— Chapter 3 —
Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber, and Jian Pei
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign &
Simon Fraser University
©2011 Han, Kamber & Pei. All rights reserved.
1
 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
2
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data cleaning
 Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove
outliers, and resolve inconsistencies
 Data integration
 Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
 Data reduction
 Dimensionality reduction
 Numerosity reduction
 Data compression
 Data transformation and data discretization
 Normalization
 Concept hierarchy generation

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 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
4
 Data Cleaning
 Data in the Real World Is Dirty: Lots of potentially incorrect data, e.g.,
instrument faulty, human or computer error, transmission error
 incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of
interest, or containing only aggregate data
 e.g., Occupation=“ ” (missing data)
 noisy: containing noise, errors, or outliers
 e.g., Salary=“−10” (an error)
 inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names, e.g.,
 Age=“42”, Birthday=“03/07/2010”
 Was rating “1, 2, 3”, now rating “A, B, C”
 discrepancy between duplicate records
 Intentional (e.g., disguised missing data)
 Jan. 1 as everyone’s birthday?
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 Incomplete (Missing) Data

 Data is not always available

 E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several
attributes, such as customer income in sales data
 Missing data may be due to
 equipment malfunction
 inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted
 data not entered due to misunderstanding
 certain data may not be considered important at the
time of entry
 not register history or changes of the data
 Missing data may need to be inferred
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 How to Handle Missing Data?
 Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing
(when doing classification)—not effective when the % of
missing values per attribute varies considerably
 Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible?
 Fill in it automatically with
 a global constant : e.g., “unknown”, a new class?!
 the attribute mean
 the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same
class: smarter
 the most probable value: inference-based such as Bayesian
formula or decision tree
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 LAB: replace missing data
 Open Weka -> explorer
 Choose Breast_cancer.arff
 Click node_caps attribute.
 Choose filters -> unsupervised-> attributes
 Choose “ReplaceMissingValues” filter

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 Noisy Data
 Noise: random error or variance in a measured variable
 Incorrect attribute values may be due to
 faulty data collection instruments

 data entry problems

 data transmission problems

 technology limitation

 inconsistency in naming convention

 Other data problems which require data cleaning

 duplicate records

 incomplete data

 inconsistent data

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 How to Handle Noisy Data?
 Binning
 first sort data and partition into (equal-frequency) bins

 then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin

median, smooth by bin boundaries, etc.

 Regression
 smooth by fitting the data into regression functions

 Clustering
 detect and remove outliers

 Combined computer and human inspection

 detect suspicious values and check by human (e.g.,

deal with possible outliers)

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 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
11
 Data Integration
 Data integration:
 Combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store
 Schema integration: e.g., A.cust-id  B.cust-#
 Integrate metadata from different sources
 Entity identification problem:
 Identify real world entities from multiple data sources, e.g., Bill Clinton
= William Clinton
 Detecting and resolving data value conflicts
 For the same real world entity, attribute values from different sources
are different
 Possible reasons: different representations, different scales, e.g.,
metric vs. British units
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 Data Redundancy
 An attribute (such as annual revenue, for instance) may be
redundant if it can be “derived” from another attribute or set
of attributes.
 Some redundancies can be detected by correlation analysis.
Given two attributes, such analysis can measure how strongly
one attribute implies the other, based on the available data
 For nominal data, we use the Χ2 (chi-square) test. For
numeric attributes, we can use the correlation coefficient
and covariance, both of which access how one attribute’s
values vary from those of another

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 Correlation Analysis (Nominal Data)
 Χ2 (chi-square) test
(Observed  Expected ) 2
2  
Expected
 The larger the Χ2 value, the more likely the variables are
related
 The cells that contribute the most to the Χ2 value are
those whose actual count is very different from the
expected count
 Correlation does not imply causality
 # of hospitals and # of car-theft in a city are correlated
 Both are causally linked to the third variable: population

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 Chi-Square Calculation: An Example

Play chess Not play chess Sum (row)

Like science fiction 250(90) 200(360) 450

Not like science fiction 50(210) 1000(840) 1050

Sum(col.) 300 1200 1500

 Χ2 (chi-square) calculation (numbers in parenthesis are

expected counts calculated based on the data distribution
in the two categories)
(250  90) 2 (50  210) 2 (200  360) 2 (1000  840) 2
 
2
    507.93
90 210 360 840
 It shows that like_science_fiction and play_chess are
correlated in the group
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 Covariance (Numeric Data)
 Covariance is similar to correlation

Correlation coefficient:

where n is the number of tuples, and are the respective mean or

A B the respective standard
expected values of A and B, σA and σB are
deviation of A and B.
 Positive covariance: If CovA,B > 0, then A and B both tend to be larger than
their expected values.
 Negative covariance: If CovA,B < 0 then if A is larger than its expected
value, B is likely to be smaller than its expected value.
 Independence: CovA,B = 0 but the converse is not true:
 Some pairs of random variables may have a covariance of 0 but are not
independent. Only under some additional assumptions (e.g., the data follow
multivariate normal distributions) does a covariance of 0 imply independence
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 Co-Variance: An Example

 It can be simplified in computation as

 Suppose two stocks A and B have the following values in one week:
(2, 5), (3, 8), (5, 10), (4, 11), (6, 14).
 Question: If the stocks are affected by the same industry trends, will
their prices rise or fall together?
 E(A) = (2 + 3 + 5 + 4 + 6)/ 5 = 20/5 = 4
 E(B) = (5 + 8 + 10 + 11 + 14) /5 = 48/5 = 9.6
 Cov(A,B) = (2×5+3×8+5×10+4×11+6×14)/5 − 4 × 9.6 = 4
 Thus, A and B rise together since Cov(A, B) > 0.
Visually Evaluating Correlation

Scatter plots
showing the
similarity from
–1 to 1.

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 LAB: Visual correlation
 Open Weka -> explorer
 Choose iris dataset
 Click visualize tab
 See the correlation between petal_length and
petal_width
 Click the figure (graph) to open more detailed
graph.

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 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
20
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 Data Reduction Strategies
 Data reduction: Obtain a reduced representation of the data set that
is much smaller in volume but yet produces the same (or almost the
same) analytical results
 Why data reduction? — A database/data warehouse may store
terabytes of data. Complex data analysis may take a very long time to
run on the complete data set.
 Data reduction strategies
 Dimensionality reduction, e.g., remove unimportant attributes

 Wavelet transforms

 Principal Components Analysis (PCA)

 Feature subset selection, feature creation

 Numerosity reduction (some simply call it: Data Reduction)

 Regression and Log-Linear Models

 Histograms, clustering, sampling

 Data cube aggregation

 Data compression

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Data Reduction 1: Dimensionality Reduction
 Curse of dimensionality
 When dimensionality increases, data becomes increasingly sparse
 Density and distance between points, which is critical to clustering, outlier
analysis, becomes less meaningful
 The possible combinations of subspaces will grow exponentially
 Dimensionality reduction
 Avoid the curse of dimensionality
 Help eliminate irrelevant features and reduce noise
 Reduce time and space required in data mining
 Allow easier visualization
 Dimensionality reduction techniques
 Wavelet transforms
 Principal Component Analysis
 Supervised and nonlinear techniques (e.g., feature selection)

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 What Is Wavelet Transform?
 Decomposes a signal into
different frequency subbands
 Applicable to n-
dimensional signals
 Data are transformed to
preserve relative distance
between objects at different
levels of resolution
 Allow natural clusters to
become more distinguishable
 Used for image compression

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 Wavelet Transformation
Haar2 Daubechie4
 Discrete wavelet transform (DWT) for linear signal
processing, multi-resolution analysis
 Compressed approximation: store only a small fraction of
the strongest of the wavelet coefficients
 Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but better lossy
compression, localized in space
 Method:
 Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with 0’s, when
necessary)
 Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference
 Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of length L/2
 Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the desired length
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 Wavelet Decomposition
 Wavelets: A math tool for space-efficient hierarchical
decomposition of functions
 S = [2, 2, 0, 2, 3, 5, 4, 4] can be transformed to S^ =
[23/4, -11/4, 1/2, 0, 0, -1, -1, 0]
 Compression: many small detail coefficients can be
replaced by 0’s, and only the significant coefficients are
retained

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 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
 Find a projection that captures the largest amount of variation in data
 The original data are projected onto a much smaller space, resulting in
dimensionality reduction. We find the eigenvectors of the covariance
matrix, and these eigenvectors define the new space

x2

Good explanation of PCA for dummies is found here:

x1
https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/2691/making-sense-of-principal-component-analysis-eigenvectors-eigenvalues 26
 Principal Component Analysis (Steps)
 Given N data vectors from n-dimensions, find k ≤ n orthogonal vectors
(principal components) that can be best used to represent data
 Normalize input data: Each attribute falls within the same range
 Compute k orthonormal (unit) vectors, i.e., principal components
 Each input data (vector) is a linear combination of the k principal
component vectors
 The principal components are sorted in order of decreasing
“significance” or strength
 Since the components are sorted, the size of the data can be
reduced by eliminating the weak components, i.e., those with low
variance (i.e., using the strongest principal components, it is
possible to reconstruct a good approximation of the original data)
 Works for numeric data only
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 LAB: Principal component
 Open Weka -> explorer
 Choose cpu dataset (numerical)
 Click filter and select
(filters.unsupervised.attributes.principalComponents)
 Click apply
 Remove the less important components. You can
see how much variance (std) need to be kept.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zuoMjUAPihA

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Data Reduction 2: Numerosity Reduction
 Reduce data volume by choosing alternative, smaller
forms of data representation
 Parametric methods (e.g., regression)
 Assume the data fits some model, estimate model

parameters, store only the parameters, and discard

the data (except possible outliers)
 Ex.: Log-linear models—obtain value at a point in m-

D space as the product on appropriate marginal

subspaces
 Non-parametric methods
 Do not assume models

 Major families: histograms, clustering, sampling, …

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 y
Regression Analysis
Y1
 Regression analysis: A collective name for
techniques for the modeling and analysis Y1’
y=x+1
of numerical data consisting of values of a
dependent variable (also called
response variable or measurement) and X1 x
of one or more independent variables (aka.
explanatory variables or predictors)  Used for prediction
 The parameters are estimated so as to (including forecasting of
give a "best fit" of the data time-series data), inference,
hypothesis testing, and
 Most commonly the best fit is evaluated by
modeling of causal
using the least squares method, but relationships
other criteria have also been used

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 LAB: Linear Regression
 Open Weka -> explorer
 Choose cpu dataset (numerical)

 Click classify tab, select

classifiers>functions>LinearRegression (not simple

linear regression)
 Click Start

 Explain the resulting model

class =0.0491 * MYCT + 0.0152 * MMIN +

0.0056 * MMAX + 0.6298 * CACH +
1.4599 * CHMAX + -56.075
https://view.vzaar.com/9187901/video/hd
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 Histogram

 Histograms. The following data are a list of

AllElectronics prices for commonly sold
 items (rounded to the nearest dollar). The
numbers have been sorted: 1, 1, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 8,
8, 10, 10, 10, 10, 12, 14, 14, 14, 15, 15, 15, 15,
15, 15, 18, 18, 18, 18, 18,18, 18, 18, 20, 20, 20,
20, 20, 20, 20, 21, 21, 21, 21, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25,
28, 28, 30,30, 30.

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Histogram

“How are the buckets

determined and the attribute
values partitioned?” There are
several partitioning rules, one of
the most important histogram
processing tool is:

Equal-width: In an equal-width
histogram, the width of each
bucket range is uniform (e.g.,
the width of $10 for the buckets
in down Figure).

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 Sampling

 Sampling: obtaining a small sample s to represent the whole

data set N
 Allow a mining algorithm to run in complexity that is
potentially sub-linear to the size of the data
 Key principle: Choose a representative subset of the data
 Simple random sampling may have very poor performance
in the presence of skew
 Develop adaptive sampling methods, e.g., stratified
sampling:
 Note: Sampling may not reduce database I/Os (page at a
time)
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 Types of Sampling

 Simple random sampling

 There is an equal probability of selecting any particular

item
 Sampling without replacement
 Once an object is selected, it is removed from the

population
 Sampling with replacement
 A selected object is not removed from the population

 Stratified sampling:
 Partition the data set, and draw samples from each

partition (proportionally, i.e., approximately the same

percentage of the data)
 Used in conjunction with skewed data

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Sampling: With or without Replacement

W O R
SRS le random
i m p h ou t
( s e wi t
l
samp ment)
pl a c e
re

SRSW
R

Raw Data
36
Sampling: Cluster or Stratified Sampling

Raw Data Cluster/Stratified Sample

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 LAB: stratified samples
 Open weather.numerical dataset
 Open supervised.instances.StratifiedRemoveFolds filter
 Configure the filter as shown in fig.

38
 Data Compression

Original Data Compressed

Data
lossless

ss y
lo
Original Data
Approximated

39
 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
40
 Data Transformation Methods
 A function that maps the entire set of values of a given attribute to a new
set of replacement values s.t. each old value can be identified with one of
the new values
 Methods
1. Attribute/feature construction
1. New attributes constructed from the given ones
2. Aggregation: Summarization, data cube construction
3. Normalization: Scaled to fall within a smaller, specified range
1. min-max normalization
2. z-score normalization
3. normalization by decimal scaling
4. Discretization: Concept hierarchy climbing
5. Smoothing: Remove noise from data
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 1,2: Feature Construction and Aggregation
 Feature Construction
 Combining two or more attributes into a single

attribute (example) combining first_name and last_name

attribute into single column called full_name. some times you want to
process data from different sources, one of data uses two column for the
name and other use one
 Combining two or more attribute values into a
single attribute value, Combining height and weight into BMI
(Body Mass Index)
 Aggregation
 Change of scale, Cities aggregated into regions, states, countries,
etc
 More “stable” data , Aggregated data tends to have less
variability
 3. Normalization
 Min-max normalization: to [new_minA, new_maxA]
v  minA
v'  (new _ maxA  new _ minA)  new _ minA
maxA  minA
 Ex. Let income range $12,000 to $98,000 normalized to [0.0,
73,600  12,000
(1.0  0)  0  0.716
1.0]. Then $73,000 is mapped to 98,000  12,000
 Z-score normalization (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation):
v  A
v' 
 A

73,600  54,000
 1.225
 Ex. Let μ = 54,000, σ = 16,000. Then 16,000
 Normalization by decimal scaling
v
v'  j Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(|ν’|) < 1
10
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 LAB: Normalize
 Open Weka -> explorer
 Choose weather.numerical dataset
 Click filter and select
(filters.unsupervised.attributes.Normalize)
 Click on the filter to change the normalization
scale if needed
 Click apply
 Check the new data

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 4. Label Discretization
 Three types of attributes
 Nominal—values from an unordered set, e.g., color, profession
 Ordinal—values from an ordered set, e.g., military or academic
rank
 Numeric—real numbers, e.g., integer or real numbers
 Discretization: Divide the range of a continuous attribute into intervals
 Interval labels can then be used to replace actual data values
 Reduce data size by discretization
 Split (top-down) vs. merge (bottom-up)
 Prepare for further analysis, e.g., classification
 Example: Age Discretization; Young 18-29; Career 30-40; Mid-
Life 41-55; Empty-Nester 56-69; Senior 70+

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 LAB: Label Discretize
 Open Weka -> explorer
 Choose weather.numerical dataset
 Click filter and select
(filters.unsupervised.attributes.Descritize)
attributeindices=2 , 2 represents the temperature,
number of bins= 3, precision = 2
 Click on the filter to change the descritization
scale if needed
 Click apply
 Check the new data

46
 Data Discretization Methods
 Typical methods: All the methods can be applied
recursively
 Binning
 Top-down split, unsupervised
 Histogram analysis
 Top-down split, unsupervised
 Clustering analysis (unsupervised, top-down split or
bottom-up merge)
 Correlation (e.g., 2) analysis (unsupervised, bottom-up
merge)

47
 Data Discretization: Binning

 Equal-width (distance) partitioning

 Divides the range into N intervals of equal size: uniform grid
 if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the attribute, the
width of intervals will be: W = (B –A)/N.
 The most straightforward, but outliers may dominate presentation
 Skewed data is not handled well
 Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning
 Divides the range into N intervals, each containing approximately
same number of samples
 Good data scaling
 Managing categorical attributes can be tricky
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 5. Binning Methods for Data Smoothing
 Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28,
29, 34
* Partition into equal-frequency (equi-depth) bins:
- Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34
* Smoothing by bin means:
- Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9
- Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23
- Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29
* Smoothing by bin boundaries:
- Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34
49
 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
50
 Exercises
 2.4 In real-world data, tuples with missing values for some attributes
are a common occurrence. Describe various methods for handling this
problem.
 2.5 Given the following data (in increasing order) for the attribute age:
13, 15, 16, 16, 19, 20, 20, 21, 22, 22, 25, 25, 25, 25, 30, 33, 33, 35,
35, 35, 35, 36, 40, 45, 46,52, 70.
(a) Use smoothing by bin means to smooth these data, using a bin
depth of 3. Illustrate your steps. Comment on the effect of this
technique for the given data.
(b) What other methods are there for data smoothing?
 2.6 Use these methods to normalize the following group of data:200,
300, 400, 600,1000
(a) min-max normalization by setting min D 0 and max D 1 
 2.7 Using the data for age given 13, 15, 16, 16, 19, 20, 20, 21, 22, 22,
25, 25, 25, 25, 30, 33, 33, 35, 35, 35, 35, 36, 40, 45, 46, 52, 70.
(a) Discretize data into 3 ranges of the strata “youth,” “middle-aged,”
and “senior.”
51
 Summary
 Data quality: accuracy, completeness, consistency, timeliness,
believability, interpretability
 Data cleaning: e.g. missing/noisy values, outliers
 Data integration from multiple sources:
 Entity identification problem

 Remove redundancies

 Detect inconsistencies

 Data reduction
 Dimensionality reduction

 Numerosity reduction

 Data compression

 Data transformation and data discretization

 Normalization

 Concept hierarchy generation

52