Process Instrumentation

CH 403
Prince George
Pressure Measurements
• In what follows, focus is made on the measurement of pressure, flow rate, temperature
and liquid level. The approach will emphasize the following points for any measuring
element:

1. Basics
2. Description
3.Working principle
4. Ability to send or transmit a signal
5. Accuracy
6. Range
7. Sensitivity
Importance of Pressure Measurement
• Pressure influences boiling and condensation temperatures of some
separation operations like distillation and therefore their costs

• Pressure measurement is necessary for measurement of flow and

level
Definition and Units of Pressure
• Pressure is the normal force exerted on unit area of a surface

• According to definition, SI unit of pressure is Pa or k Pa (Pa = N/m2) for

low pressures, kgf / cm2 for high pressures

• Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the atmosphere at

sea level Patm = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi
Pressure Expressed as Head
• Pressure can be thought as produced by the weight of some
liquid column of certain height

w mg ρ Vg ρ Ahg

P   
A A A A

w h

P  ρhg
 Types of Pressure
1. Static pressure: is the pressure of fluids or gases that are not in motion (this
the one usually measured)

2. Dynamic pressure: is the pressure exerted by a fluid or gas when it hits a

surface or an object due to its flow

3. Impact pressure: is the sum of the static and dynamic pressure on a surface

4. Atmospheric pressure: is the pressure on the earth’s surface due to the weight of the gases in the earth’s atmosphere
and is normally expressed at sea level as 14.7 psi, or 101.3 kPa. The atmospheric pressure is dependant on weather
conditions.

5. Total or absolute vacuum: is zero pressure

6. Vacuum: is a pressure value between total vacuum and normal atmospheric pressure
 Pressure Measurement Scales
• Pressure is always measured with respect to a particular reference pressure.

• As such, there are three basic pressure scales:

1. Gauge pressure:
• Pressure is measured with respect to atmospheric
• Gauge pressure values could either be positive or negative values

2. Absolute pressure:
• Pressure is measured with respect to absolute vacuum
• Absolute pressures could only be positive values.

3. Differential pressure:
• Pressure is expressed with respect to another pressure and is therefore the
difference between two values.
• The difference could be either positive or negative
• Absolute pressure readings are generally more accurate than gauge readings. The
reason is that the reference of the gauge pressure measuring instruments which is
the atmospheric pressure fluctuates with weather conditions and altitude from the
earth surface.

• The relation between absolute and gauge pressure is given by the equation:

Absolute pressure  Gauge pressure  Atmospheric pressure

Examples

What is 4 kgf /cm2 gauge when expressed in absolute pressure?

atmospheric pressure = 101.3 k Pa , and 1 k Pa = 0.0102 kg f /cm2
Solution
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure+ atmospheric pressure
= 4 + 101.3 X 0.0102 = 5.03 kgf /cm2

What is 300 k Pa when expressed as pressure head of water? given that g = 9.8 m/s2 and
water = 1000 kg/m3
Solution:
Substituting in the equation: P  ρhg

h = 300 X1000/(1000 X 9.8) = 30 m

 Pressure Measuring Elements
A. U-tube Manometer

1. Description: It consists of U-shaped transparent glass or plastic tube partially filled

with a manometer liquid (water or mercury). The scale of the manometer is usually
calibrated in pressure units.

2. Principle:
When both arms of a manometer are exposed to the atmosphere or when the pressures
are equal, the scale reading is zero

When a pressure difference is applied to the arms, then the manometer liquid in rises in
the lower pressure arm and drops in the higher pressure arm giving a difference in height
of the liquid between the two arms

P 1 - P2 = ρ g h
The equation above is the manometer equation,
ρ is the density of the manometer liquid and h is the difference in the height of
manometer liquid
3. Pressure scales used:
a) Differential pressure
b) Gauge pressure (if p2 = patm )
c) Absolute pressure ( if p2 = 0)
d) Atmospheric pressure (if p1 = patm , p2 =0)

4. Indication and transmission: Local only i.e. manometer is

not a transducer, no signal can be sent out from a
manometer

5. Range: low to medium range depending on the manometer

liquid:
Water for low pressure range
Mercury for high pressure range

6. Accuracy: depending on the following sources of error:

a) Temperature effect on the density of the manometer liquid
b) Position of the manometer (must be kept vertical)
c) Trapping of gases in liquids or trapping of liquids in gases
• Well -type manometer: provides better accuracy, because zero level in the wide leg is kept almost at
the same position . The manometer is used for measuring low pressure difference by using low-
density liquid.

7. Sensitivity: Inclined manometers were developed to increase sensitivity of manometer readings and
therefore can measure low pressure difference
 Bourdon Tube
1. Description: It consists of a C-shaped hollow elastic metal tube open at
one end and connected to a pointer-scale indicating mechanism at the
other closed end.

• A special type of Bourdon tubes is the seal-type Bourdon tube which is

used for measuring the pressure of corrosive liquids, easily solidifying
liquids, or liquids containing suspended solids

2. Principle: If pressure is applied to the open end, then the hollow tube
straightens causing the pointer to move and indicates a higher pressure
value on the scale
3. Pressure scales used:
Only gauge pressure
4. Indication and transmission: Local and remote transmission. The indicator
mechanism may be replaced by a transducer producing an electric signal

5. Range: Low to high depending on the tube radius of curvature, tube wall
thickness, and material of construction

6. Accuracy: main source of error is the temperature effect on metal

expansion

7. Sensitivity: straightening of the C-shaped tube can be increased by

using a helical Bourdon tube
 Bellows
Description: It consists of an elastic metal cylinder with deep folds.
Bellows resembles the Accordion musical instrument.

• Bellows may be connected to an opposing spring that will help in

having a desired range and sensitivity and the spring will also help
restore the shape of the bellows after measurement is done

Principle: When applying pressure, a bellow expands or contracts and this causes
a pointer mechanism to indicate a higher pressure on the scale.

 Pressure scales used:

 Gauge pressure
 Absolute pressure
 Differential pressure is measured by opposed bellows
Indication & transmission: The pointer mechanism may be replaced by a linear variable
differential transducer (LVDT) which senses the expansion and change it into an
electric signal.

Range: low to medium

Accuracy: main source of error is the temperature effect on bellow metal expansion
 Diaphragm gauge
Description: It consists of a thin flat circular elastic metal plate. The diaphragm may be loaded with a spring as

in bellows for the same purposes explained before.

Principle: both sides of the diaphragm are exposed to different pressures.

The diaphragm bends towards the side that has the lowest pressure

Pressure scales used:

• Gauge pressure
• Absolute pressure
• Differential pressure

Indication & transmission: The pointer mechanism may be replaced by a strain

gauge which senses the bending and change it into an electric signal.

Range: low to high

Accuracy: main source of error is the temperature effect on diaphragm material expansion

Sensitivity: can be increased by using capsules connected in series

• One capsule is formed of two diaphragms joined back-to-back

• Pressure is applied to the space between the two diaphragms

 Why Electrical Pressure Transducers?
Pressure
• Transmission requirements for remote display as electric signal transmission can be
through cable or cordless.
Sensing
• Electric signals give quicker responses and high accuracy in digital measurements. Element

• The linearity property of the electric signal produced to pressure applied favors displacement
simplicity.
Transduction
• They can be used for extreme pressure applications, i.e., high vacuum and pressure element

measurements. electric

• EPTs are immune to hysteresis, shock and mechanical vibrations. Signal

Conditioner

 Pressure sensing element such as a bellow , a diaphragm or a bourdon tube

 Primary conversion element e.g., resistance or voltage
 Secondary conversion element V or I output
 Types of Electric Pressure Transducers

Strain gauge pressure transducers Piezoelectric pressure transducers

Capacitive pressure transducers

Inductive transducers
 Piezoelectricity

Phenomenon of generating an electric charge in a material when subjecting it to a mechanical stress (direct effect) and
generating a mechanical strain in response to an applied electric field (converse effect).
Piezoelectric materials are Anisotropic – Electrical and mechanical properties differ along different directions

Piezoelectric sensors convert stress into an electric potential and vice versa.
Sensors based on this technology are used to measure varying pressures.
 Capacitive Pressure Sensors
• Capacitive pressure sensors typically use a thin diaphragm as
one plate of a capacitor.

• Applied pressure causes the diaphragm to deflect and the

capacitance to change.

• This change may or may not be linear and is typically on the

order of several picofarads out of a total capacitance of 50-100
pF.

• The change in capacitance may be used to control the frequency

of an oscillator or to vary the coupling of an AC signal through a
network.

• The electronics for signal conditioning should be located close to

the sensing element to prevent errors due to stray capacitance.
Capacitive Pressure Sensors
In a two-plate capacitor sensor design, the movement of the
diaphragm between the plates is detected as an indication of
the changes in process pressure.

Advantages
• Suitability for absolute, gauge, sealed gage, vacuum, and differential sensing
applications
• Ideal for lower-pressure applications
• Performs well in applications that are susceptible to over-pressurization
• Very good hysteresis, linearity, stability, and repeatability, in addition to static pressure
measurement capability
Disadvantages
• If misused in an application can be sensitive to particulate and humidity in the capacitive
gap.
  Inductive Pressure Sensors

• Several configurations based on varying inductance or

inductive coupling are used in pressure sensors.
• They all require AC excitation of the coil(s) and, if a DC output is
desired, subsequent demodulation and filtering.
• The LVDT types have a fairly low frequency response due to the
necessity of driving the moving core of the differential
transformer
• The LVDT uses the moving core to vary the inductive coupling
between the transformer primary and secondary.
 Strain Gauge Pressure Sensors

• When the crystal lattice structure of silicon is deformed by applied stress, the resistance changes. This is called the
piezoresistive effect. Following are some of the types of strain gauges used in pressure sensors.

• Deposited strain gauge. Metallic strain gauges can be formed on a diaphragm by means of thin film deposition. This
construction minimizes the effects of repeatability and hysteresis that bonded strain gauges exhibit. These sensors
exhibit the relatively low output of metallic strain gauges.

Bonded semiconductor strain gauge.

• A silicon bar may be bonded to a diaphragm to form a sensor with
relatively high output.

• Making the diaphragm from a chemically inert material allows this

sensor to interface with a wide variety of media
 Piezoresistor
For typical values of the stress voltage drop along the resistor
Vr varies

• IC processing is used to form the piezoresistors on the surface of a silicon

wafer
• There are four piezoresistors within the diaphragm area on the sensor. Two
are subjected to tangential stress and two to radial stress when the
diaphragm is deflected.
• They are connected in a four-element bridge configuration and provide the
following output: Integrated silicon pressure sensor measures 0.52 in.
long by 0.44 in. wide by 0.75 in. high, including the
VOUT/VCC = ΔR / R port.
 Resonant wire strain gauge
The resonant-wire pressure transducer was introduced in the late 1970s. In this design, a wire is gripped by a static member

at one end, and by the sensing diaphragm at the other.

• An oscillator circuit causes the wire to oscillate at its resonant

frequency.
• A change in process pressure changes the wire tension, which in
turn changes the resonant frequency of the wire.
• A digital counter circuit detects the shift.
• Detection is quite precisely, used for low differential pressure
applications as well as to detect absolute and gauge pressures.
 Potentiometric Pressure Sensors
• Potentiometric pressure sensors use a Bourdon tube, capsule, or bellows to
drive a wiper arm on a resistive element.

• For reliable operation, the wiper must bear on the element with some force,
which leads to repeatability and hysteresis errors.

• These devices are very low cost, however, and are used in low-performance
applications such as dashboard oil pressure gauges
Pressure Gauge Ranges
 Pressure Gauges

Moderate pressure measurement

• Manometers
• Elastic elements

High pressure measurement Low pressure measurement

• Electrical resistances • Mcleod gauge
• Pirani gauge
• Ionization gauge
Mechanical Deformation

The degree of deformation that an element undergoes is proportional to both the material properties
of the element and to the pressure exerted on it

The degree of deflection of these elements can be measured in a variety of ways, including direct mechanical
measurement, variation in electrical properties of a device containing the element and deflection of optical probes.

Strain-based gauges are a variant on this approach that are commonly encountered in positive-pressure (i.e.
greater than atmospheric pressure) applications.
 Low pressure measurement

McLeod gauge amplifies the low pressure and was developed to extend the range of vacuum measurement
significantly.

The McLeod Gauge measures the vacuum pressure in the range between 10 -1 and 10-5 torr.

• Mercury manometer in which a volume of gas is

compressed before measurement.

• It operates by compressing a low-pressure gas of known

volume into a smaller volume so that its pressure is
sufficiently higher enough to be read.

• The resultant final volume and pressure provide the

indication of applied low pressure.

Before and After Compression

 McLeod Gauge is based on Boyle’s law.
pV = pcVc
where,
p & V – Pressure and Volume of gas before compression
pc & Vc – Pressure and Volume of gas after compression
 Advantages
1. McLeod gauge is an inexpensive standard that measures vacuum pressure without any electronics or
sophisticated equipment.
2. It is used for calibrating other low pressure measuring gauges.
3. It is not influenced by gas composition.
4. The readings obtained from McLeod gauge do not require any correction.

Disadvantages
1. The McLeod gauge is useful for measuring pressures of true gases that obey Boyle’s law.
2. Condensable gases cannot be used.
3. The gauge is to be handled only by skilled technicians.
4. It cannot give continuous output.
5. Precautions are to be taken to remove any condensable vapors present inside otherwise the gauge will show a false low
reading.
6. There are chances for the gauge to get contaminated.
 Vacuum classifications
Number of Molecules per
Description  Pressure (Torr)   Pressure (Pa) m3 of Gas 
 Atmospheric Pressure  760  101.3 kPa  2.5 x 1025

 Low (Rough) Vacuum  25 to 760  3 kPa - 100 kPa  8.1 x.1023 - 2.5 x 1025

 Medium Vacuum  1 x 10-3 - 25  100 mPa - 3 kPa  3.2 x1019 - 8.1 x 1023

 High Vacuum  1 x 10-9 - 1 x 10-3  100 nPa - 100 mPa 3.2 x1013 - 3.2 x1019

 Ultra-High Vacuum (UHV) 1 x 10-12 - 1 x 10-9 100 pPa - 100 nPa 3.2 x 1010 - 3.2 x 1013

Extremely High Vacuum < 1x10-12 < 100 pPa < 3.2 x 1010

Outer Space <3 x 10-17 - 1 x 10-6 < 3 fPa - 100 µPa 970,000 - 3.2 x 1016
 Thermal Conductivity Vacuum Gauge

Vacuum gauge designs are based on a response to gas density and some species dependent molecular property such as
specific heat.

Gas pressure is determined by measuring the energy transfer from a hot wire to
the surrounding gas.
The heat is transferred into the gas through molecular collisions with the wire
and the frequency (and therefore the degree of heat transferred) of these
collisions is dependent on the gas pressure and the molecular weight of the gas
molecules.
• These gauges only exhibit simple proportionality between pressure and heat
transfer at relatively low pressures, with typical measurement ranges lying
between 10-4 and 10 Torr.
• Thermal conductivity gauges include thermocouple, thermistor and Pirani
gauges.
• They are generally relatively inexpensive and reliable.
 Pirani sensor filament is typically made of a thin (<25 µm)
Tungsten, Nickel or Platinum wire.

Pirani gauges were first developed in the early 1900’s.

• The sensing element is a wire of known resistance and known temperature coefficient of resistance (i.e., how its
resistance varies with temperature).
• The element forms one leg of a balanced Wheatstone bridge. When gas molecules collide with the heated element, they
extract heat from it, changing its resistance which unbalances the bridge relative to its reference state.
• Since the number of collisions and hence the amount of heat transferred to the gas is proportional to the gas pressure,
the voltage required to maintain the bridge in balance is proportional to the pressure.
 Limitations
• Since different gases have differing abilities to transfer heat away from the filament (i.e., different specific heat
capacities), the Pirani gauge response depends on the gas that is present in the system.
• Thus, users must calibrate the Pirani gauge for the expected residual gas in the system.
• Pirani element operates at temperatures of between 100 and 150°C, care must be taken that
reactive gases that can break down and deposit solid material on the element are excluded from
the gauge.
• If such deposits occur (or should corrosive gases react with the element), the accuracy of the
Pirani will be diminished.
Since the Pirani depends on heat dissipation from the element by the surrounding gas, the Pirani
loses accuracy when the pressure drops below about 10-4 Torr where heat transfer is significantly
reduced.
 The relatively low cost, small size and good sensitivity of Pirani gauges make them the gauge of choice
for routine vacuum measurements in the low to medium vacuum range.
 Their low accuracy (5% of reading) relative to other types of vacuum gauge limits their use to non-
critical applications.
 At high pressures (10 Torr and above), the mean free path of gas molecules becomes reduced to a point where
nonlinearities enter into the pressure-voltage relationship and reduce the gauge's sensitivity.

• Pirani gauges are normally received calibrated

for nitrogen and calibration curves are required
for use with other gases.

• Pirani gauges are relatively fast with response to

pressure changes occurring in < 1/10 th of a
second .

 The relatively low cost, small size and good

sensitivity in the low to medium vacuum range.

 Low accuracy (5% of reading) limits their use to

non-critical applications
 Thermocouple gauge
Due to this current, the metal strip gets heated and acts as hot surface.
The glass tube acts as the cold surface. Whose temperature is nearly equal
room temperature.
• The conductivity of the metal strip changes due to the applied pressure.
This change in conductivity causes a change in the temperature, which is
sensed by the thermocouple.
• The thermocouple produces current corresponding to the thermocouple.
This indicated current becomes a measure of the applied pressure when
calibrated

• A very simple and cheap thermal conductivity gauge is the so-called thermocouple.
• A constant current of typically 150 mA is sent through the heated wire and its temperature is measured by a thermocouple
of chromel/alumel.
• The measurement range is rather limited (0.1 Pa–100 Pa) as well as the accuracy.
 Knudsen gauge

• At these pressures the energy transported by molecules of gas is small

compared to the energy transported by photons.
• But the momentum transported by molecules is huge compared to the
momentum transported by photons on account of the comparatively
enormous mass of the atoms.

• The Pirani gauge measures the molecular energy transport while the Knudsen
gauge measures the momentum transport, hence its superiority.
• The Knudsen gauge consists essentially of a light suspended vane in a chamber communicating with the vacuum to be
measured.
• One side of the vane is exposed to a source of heat at temperature T F while the other side is exposed merely to the walls of

the chamber at temperature TV.

• The "hot" gas molecules leaving the heater transport more momentum to one side of the vane than the cold molecules from
the walls of the chamber transport to the other side and Knudsen has shown that in consequence the vane should experience
a net displacing force per unit area.
 Ionization gauge
UHV and XHV pressure measurements are routinely performed using ionization gauges configured
as either hot cathode gauges (HCGs) or cold cathode gauges (CCGs).

Both sensor types determine pressure from measurements of an ion flux created by collisions
between energetic electrons and residual neutral gas molecules within the gauge

Number density and is commonly given the symbol n. In terms of the number density, the pressure

p=cnT
where p is the pressure, c is a constant and T is the temperature.

Ionizing the gas and collecting the ions is a convenient way of establishing the number density in the gas
phase since there is a well-defined statistical relationship between the collisional dynamics that create
ions and the number density of molecules in a gas and hence the pressure of that gas. 
Ionization gauges perform this measurement using free electrons that have been produced by either
thermionic emission or plasma generation.

The ion current that is collected by the negatively biased collector can be related to pressure once the
gauge has been calibrated. The basic gauge equation for ionization gauges is:
Ic = KnIe

where Ic is the ion current, K is a constant relating to the ionization probability, n is the number density of

gas molecules and Ie is the ionizing electron current.

 Hot Cathode Gauge

A filament (the cathode) emits electrons by thermionic emission and a

positive electrical potential on the grid accelerates these electrons away
from the filament.
 The electrons oscillate through the grid until they eventually strike
either the grid or a molecule of gas.

 When an electron impacts a gas molecule, a positively charged cation is

HCGs employ thermionic emission from a
created that is accelerated toward and collected by a negative electrode
filament as a source of electrons 
known as the collector.
 The electrical current created in this manner is directly proportional to
the number of ions that are created in the gas phase which, in turn, is
directly proportional to the gas pressure.

Bayard-Alpert hot cathode ionization gauge

 • The hot filament ionization gauge consists of a heated filament (cathode) to
furnish electrons, a grid, and an anode plate.
• These elements are housed in an envelop which communicates with the
vacuum system under test.
• The grid is maintained at a positive potential of 100-350 V while the anode
plate is maintained at negative potential of about 3-50 V with respect to
cathode.
• The cathode is thus a positive ion collector and the anode plate is an electron
collector.
Advantages
• Wide pressure range 10-3 torr to 10-11 torr.
• Constant sensitivity.
• Possibility of process control and remote indication.
• Fast response to pressure changes.
• High cost and complex electrical circuit.
• Calibration varies with gases.
• Filament burns out if exposed to air by hot.
• Decomposition of some gases by the hot filament.
Fine vacuum ionization gauge • Contamination of gas due to heat.
 Hot Cathode Gauge Limits

Operating range of measurement of the HCG is defined, in the upper limit, by restrictions on the mean free path of the
ions when the number density in the gas phase becomes too high.

At high number densities, an ion has a high probability of interacting with either a free electron or a neutral molecule
before reaching the collector. When this happens, the initial electron-molecule ion creation event no longer contributes
to the ion current.
In practical terms, this upper limit for the use of ionization gauges is about 10 -3 Torr.

In HCGs, the lower limit is the so-called X-ray limit.

A small fraction of these X-rays cause electrons to be photoelectrically ejected. This photoelectron current leaving the
collector is electrically detected as identical to the positive ion current, adding to the current and producing a false
pressure reading.

This phenomenon results in the standard lower limit for pressure measurement using the best conventional HCGs having
a value of around 10-11 Torr.
 Hot Cathode Gauge Limits

• Sensor-to-sensor reproducibility of Bayard-Alpert HCG readings is typically about 2%.

• Repeatability of readings is 1-2%

• Reactive gases can damage gauge components when they are at operating temperature, either through
unwanted deposition or through corrosion.

 Even when the gauge is not "on", process and ambient gases will adsorb on the components of the HCG and
these materials will slowly desorb from the gauge surfaces during normal operation, increasing the local
pressure within the gauge.

 Regular degassing helps prevent process deposits from collecting and ensures that the HCG provides the most
sensitive and repeatable pressure indications.
 Cold cathode gauges
• CCGs rely on randomly emitted electrons caused by cosmic rays, a
radioactive source, and field emission to initiate stable electron plasma
within the current path of the gauge.
• The discharge within a CCG normally ignites within a very short time at 10 -6
Torr or above, a few minutes at 10-8 Torr, and longer times at lower
pressures.
Electron path and ion generation in an inverted • In operation, the crossed fields trap a near-constant circulating electron
magnetron sensor
current in this path. Electrons moving within the conduction path collide
with residual gas molecules, producing the ion flux that is measured.

CCGs are effective for measuring operating pressures that

range between 10-10 and 10-2 Torr

MKS inverted magnetron cold cathode sensor

 Cold cathode gauges

• Cold cathode gauges exhibit upper limits on pressure measurements similar to those observed for hot cathode
gauges.
 Typically, CCGs are effective for measuring operating pressures that range between 10 -10 and 10-2 Torr.
 As with HCGs and for similar reasons, CCG readings are gas dependent. Because of the different operating
principle, however, CCGs require different gas correction factors than those for HCGs.
 Repeatability for CCGs is not normally as consistent as that of HCGs, with typical values of about ±5% and
reproducibility sensor-to-sensor of 20-25% is not uncommon.
• For high accuracy operations, CCGs are normally calibrated against a transfer standard such as a spinning rotor
gauge or a high accuracy HCG.
 Radioactive vacuum gauge

Radiological vacuum gauges measure the density of air or other gas in a chamber by ionizing the gas with the radiation
from a radioactive source. The ions are collected, and the ion current provides an analog indication of the gas density.

The difficulty in extending the operation of the gauge to lower equivalent densities is the inconvenience of measuring
the very small ionization current produced by the gauge at low densities.

With dry air in the chamber such a source produces an ionization current less than 10 -12 A at an equivalent density
of 10-3 mm Hg

Higher current can be obtained by increasing the size of the chamber or by increasing the source intensity.

Radium, Tritium

Tritium decays with a half-life of 12.26 years, emitting a single -particle in its decay to the stable He3 nucleus.
Tritium is available chemically bound in a thin layer of titanium on the surface of a stainless-steel foil
 Level Measurement
Effective level measurement plays a critical role in a broad range of industries like

• Ethanol production,
• Oil and gas production,
• Pulp and paper mills,
• Wastewater management,
• Mining,
• and Biochemical plants.

It enables organizations to determine the precise amount of liquids, solids or gases within their equipment, therefore
ensuring safety and optimal performance.
Two methods used to measure level

• Direct or Mechanical method, and

• Indirect or Inferential methods.
 Direct Method of Level Measurement

The direct method of level measurement involves the use of physical properties, like fluid motion, as well as
thermal, optical and electrical properties.
• Measuring the height of the substance in a vessel.
A leading advantage of all direct methods is that they don’t require the operator to compensate for changes in level
caused by temperature.
• While liquids and gases might expand or contract due to temperature changes, direct methods of level
measurement will show the amount of the product.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Direct level measurement is simple, almost straightforward • It is not easily adopted to signal transmission
and economical; techniques for remote indication or control.
• It uses a direct measurement of the distance (usually
height) from the datum line, and used primarily for local
indication.
 Indirect Method of Level Measurement

The indirect method of level measurement involves converting readouts and data of a known quantity, such as
pressure ratio to the volume.

However, it’s important for operators to note that indirect level measurement is sensitive to the specific gravity of
the substance, as well as the substance’s temperature.

 It is vital to consider these factors during all indirect level measurement work because they can affect the
accuracy of the calculations and measurements.

 Many physical and electrical properties have been used for this purpose and are well suited to producing
proportional output signals for remote transmission.
 DIRECT METHOD
This is the simplest method of measuring liquid level. In this method, the level of the liquid
is measured directly by means of the following level indicators

i. Sight Glass / Gauge Glass

ii. Float Type / Float - Operated Level Gauges
iii. Torque Tube Displacer / Float Displacement Type Level Gauges
 SIGHT GLASS / GAUGE GLASS
• Sight glass is used for the continuous indication of liquid level within a tank or
vessel.
• A sight glass instrument consists of a graduated tube of toughened glass which is
connected to the interior of the tank at the bottom in which the water level is
required.
 Advantages
• Direct reading is possible
• Special designs are available for use up to 316°C and 10000 psi.
• Glassless designs are available in numerous materials for corrosion
resistance.

Disadvantages
• It is read only where the tank is located, which is not always
convenient.
• Overlapping gauges are needed for long level spans
• Accuracy and readability depend on the cleanliness of glass and fluid
 FLOAT DISPLACEMENT TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT
• These instruments work on the Archimedes principle according to which a body
when placed in a liquid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced
liquid, and the apparent change in weight of the body is directly proportional to the
level of liquid in which it is placed.
• Torque tube is the most commonly used device for this purpose.
• The displacer is attached to a torque tube assembly whose rotary motion is used for
read out/control.
• Otherwise, this instrument is rugged and simple in construction and reliable in
operation.
• With selection of suitable material for float, float cage, and torque tube, it’s
possible to use this instrument over a wide range of pressure and for many liquids.
Float Displacement Type Level Measurement
 Working
1.Type of level measurement by floating ball is very practical for continuously measurable liquid level.
2.A main component of this type is a floating ball.
3.Floating ball is connected with counterweight (load) for measuring the level of liquid in tank.
4.This type is not suitable for measured corrosive liquid.

Advantages
• It is possible to read the liquid levels in a tank from the ground level even if the tank is kept below the ground level.
• Its cost is low & has reliable design.
• It operates over a large temperature range.
• There is a choice of corrosion-resistant materials to make these.

Disadvantages
• They are normally limited to moderate pressures.
• They are tailored to tank geometry.
 Dip Stick
• Simple and cheap
• Can be used with any wet material and not affected by density.
• Can not be used with pressurized tanks
• Visual indication only (electronic versions are available)

Rod Gauge - similar to a dipstick found in a car, it

has weighted line markings to indicate depth or
volume
 INDIRECT METHODS
Following are the indirect methods of liquid level measurement generally used in industries.

i. Hydrostatic pressure type

ii. Electrical methods
iii. Ultrasonic level sensor
 Bubbler level indicator

Bubbler type level indicator is also known as purge type of liquid level meter.

• The air pressure in the pneumatic pipeline is adjusted and maintained slightly greater than the hydrostatic pressure at
the lower end of the bubbler tube.
• The bubbler tube is dipped in the tank such that its lower end is at zero level i.e., reference level, and the
other end is attached to a pressure regulator and a pressure gauge.
• Now the supply of air through the bubbler tube is adjusted so that the air pressure is slightly higher than the pressure
exerted by the liquid column in the vessel or tank.

• This is accomplished by adjusting the air pressure regulator until a slow discharge of air takes place i.e., bubbles are seen
leaving the lower end of the bubbler tube.
(In some cases a small air flow meter is arranged to control an excessive air flow if any).

 When there is a small flow of air and the fluid has uniform density,
 the pressure indicated by the pressure gauge is directly proportional to the height of the level in the tank provided
the gauge is calibrated properly in unit of liquid level.
Capacitive Level-Sensing Techniques

Insulated capacitance probe (which is a metal electrode) firmly fixed near and
parallel to the maul wall of the tank.

• If liquid in the tank is non-inductive, the capacitance probe and the tank
wall form the plates of a parallel plate capacitor and liquid in between
them acts as the dielectric.

• If liquid is conductive, the capacitance probe and liquid form the plates of
the capacitor and the insulation of the probe acts as the dielectric.

A capacitance measuring device is connected with the probe and the tank
wall, which is calibrated in terms of the level of liquid in the tank
• Capacitance level sensors are used for wide variety of solids, aqueous and organic liquids, and slurries.
• The technique is frequently referred as RF as radio frequency signals applied to the capacitance circuit.
• Sense material with dielectric constants as low as 1.1 (coke and fly ash) and as high as 88 (water) or more.
• Sludges and slurries such as dehydrated cake and sewage slurry (dielectric constant approx. 50)
• liquid chemicals such as quicklime (dielectric constant approx. 90).

• Dual-probe capacitance level sensors can also be used to sense the interface between two immiscible liquids with
substantially different dielectric constants.

Since capacitance level sensors are electronic devices, phase modulation and the use of higher frequencies makes the
sensor suitable for applications in which dielectric constants are similar.
 Advantages of Capacitive level measurement
Applications
• Relatively inexpensive
• Versatile • Liquids
• Reliable • Powered and granular solids
• Requires minimal maintenance
• Contains no moving parts • Liquid metals at very high temperature
• Easy to install and can be adapted easily for different size of vessels • Liquefied gases at very low temperature
• Good range of measurement, from few cm to about 100 m
• Rugged • Corrosive materials like hydrofluoric acid
• Simple to use • Very high pressure industrial processes.
• Easy to clean
• Can be designed for high temperature and pressure applications.

Disadvantages
• It is very much sensitive to changes in environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity etc.
• The measurement of capacitance is hard compare to measurement of resistance.
• Capacitive proximity sensor are not so accurate compare to inductive sensor type.
 Ultrasonic method

Ultrasonic liquid level works on the principle of reflection of the sound wave from the surface of the liquid.

• The time lapse between firing the sound burst and receiving the return echo is directly proportional to the distance
between the transducer and the material in the vessel.

• The medium is normally air over the material’s surface but it could be a blanket of some other gases or vapours.

• The instrument measures the time for the bursts to travel down to the reflecting surface and return.
 • Distance = (Velocity of Sound x Time)/2.

• Models that can convert readings into 4–20 mA outputs to DCSs, PLCs, or other remote systems.

The frequency range for ultrasonic methods is in the range of 15-200 kHz.

 The speed of sound through the medium (usually air) varies with the medium’s temperature. The transducer may
contain a temperature sensor to compensate for changes in operating temperature
 The presence of heavy foam/dust on the surface of the material can act as a sound absorbent. (Optical guides)

 Extreme turbulence of the liquid can cause fluctuating readings. Use of a damping adjustment in the instrument or a
response delay may help overcome this problem.
 Advantages

• Ultrasonic transmitters are easy to install on empty tanks or on tanks containing liquid.
• Set-up is simple and those devices with on-board programming capability can be configured in minutes.
• As there is no contact with the media and no moving parts, the devices are virtually maintenance free.
• Wetted materials are usually an inert fluoropolymer, and resistant to corrosion from condensing vapors.
• The device is non-contacting, the level measurement is unaffected by changes in the liquid density, dielectric, or
viscosity, and performs well on aqueous liquids and many chemicals.
• Changes in process temperature will change the speed of the ultrasonic pulse through the space above the liquid,
but built-in temperature compensation automatically corrects this.
• Changes in process pressure do not affect the measurement.
 Limitations
• Ultrasonic transmitters rely on the pulse being unaffected during its flight time.
• Liquids which form heavy vapors, steam or vapor layers should be avoided (use a Radar transmitter in these
instances).
• Vacuum applications are not possible.

• Materials of construction generally limit the process temperature to around 158 °F (70 °C) and pressure to 43 psig
(3 bar).
• The condition of the liquid surface is also important. Some turbulence can be tolerated but foaming will often
damp out the return echo.
• Obstructions in the tank, such as pipes, strengthening bars and agitators, will cause false echoes.
• But most transmitters have sophisticated software algorithms to allow masking or ignoring of these echoes.
• Ultrasonic transmitters can be used on silos containing dry products such as pellets, grains or powders.
• Factors such as surface angle of repose, dusting and long ranges must be taken into account.
• A Guided Wave Radar transmitter is better suited to dry product applications.
 Magnetic level indicators

Magnetic Level Indicators (MLI) have revolutionized the global visual indication market by offering
a safer, reliable, and high-visibility alternative to common gauge glass assemblies.

• The float moves up and down with the increase and decrease in the level of liquid
respectively.

• A magnetic shielding device and an indicator containing small wafers arranged in

series and attached to the sealed chamber.

• These wafers are coated with luminous paint and rotate 180°.
 Magnetic level indicators

• Model WMI magnetic level indicators are highly adaptable. Applications

• They work from −320°F to 1,000°F (−195°C to 537°C), from full
• Refinery and chemical industries
vacuum to 5,000 psi (344 bar), and for specific gravities as low as • Energy and power plant technology
0.35. • Feed water heaters and boilers
• Oil and gas industries
 Indicator flags can be red–white, yellow–black, or fluorescent.
• Offshore exploration and drilling
 The scales can be indicated as imperial units (feet/inches),
• Pipeline compressor applications
metric units (mm/cm/m), or percentage, or even customized to • Pulp and paper
your specific requirements. • Food and beverage
 You can also choose from several process connections, connection
• Gas plants
sizes, vents, and drains. • Pharmaceutical

• Other useful options include high temperature insulation and

cryogenic insulation.
 Hydrostatic Level Measurement

The mathematical relationship between liquid column height and

pressure is as follows
• Liquid density is a critically important factor for volumetric measurement when using hydrostatic pressure-
sensing instruments.
 If liquid density is subject to random change, the accuracy of any hydrostatic pressure-based level or
volume instrument will be correspondingly unreliable.

• The changes in liquid density will have absolutely no effect on hydrostatic measurement of liquid mass, so long
as the vessel has a constant cross-sectional area throughout its entire height.

 Hydrostatic pressure is seen to be directly proportional to the amount of liquid mass contained within the
vessel, regardless of changes in liquid density.

 This is useful to know in applications where true mass measurement of a liquid

Differential pressure transmitters are the most common pressure-sensing device used in this capacity to
infer liquid level within a vessel.
 Advantages
• Proven and established measuring principle with high reliability, field-tested millions of times
• Robust measuring process, uninfluenced by disruptive factors such as dust, foam, vapour, buildup, contaminants,
etc.
• Reliable measurement unaffected by many physical characteristics such as conductivity, dielectric coefficient or
viscosity
• Level measurement unaffected by vessel geometry and existing installed equipment
• Simple installation and operation of submersible pressure transmitters and conventional pressure sensors without
the need for calibration or adjustment
• Direct contact with the medium
• Numerous alternative design variations and sensor technologies for almost every application

Limitations
• Unsuitable for bulk material
• Accurate measurement requires either media with constant density or continuous density measurement of the
medium
Level Measurement with Differential Pressure Transmitters

∆ 𝑃 =𝑃 ( 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) +𝑠 . 𝑔 ∗ 𝐻 − 𝑃 (𝑎𝑡𝑚)

∆ 𝑃 =+𝑠 . 𝑔∗ 𝐻

h = P/s.g
Expressed in water column (in)
∆ 𝑃 =𝑃 ( 𝑔𝑎𝑠 ) +𝑠 .𝑔 ∗ 𝐻 − 𝑃 (𝑔𝑎𝑠)
4 mA = 0% Level
∆ 𝑃 =+𝑠 . 𝑔∗ 𝐻 20 mA = 100% Level
 Zero Suppression Calibration in Level Measurement

∆ 𝑃 =𝑃 ( 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) +𝑠 . 𝑔 ∗ 𝐻 +𝑠 . 𝑔 ∗ 𝑋 − 𝑃 (𝑎𝑡𝑚)

∆ 𝑃 =+𝑠 . 𝑔 ∗(𝐻 + 𝑋 )

• Transmitter is not installed at the same level than its high socket and there is the need to compensate the
liquid column at the transmitter socket.

• This type of installation is required where the transmitter is at a lower level,

which, in practice is the chosen way to facilitate access, visualization and
maintenance.

• Zero suppression occurs when the transmitter indicates a level above the real.
Zero Elevation Calibration in Level Measurement

“Wet Leg Condition”

∆ 𝑃 =𝑃 ( 𝑔𝑎𝑠 ) +𝑠 .𝑔 1 ∗ 𝐻+ 𝑠 . 𝑔 1 ∗ 𝑋 − 𝑃 ( 𝑔𝑎𝑠 ) − 𝑠 . 𝑔 2 ∗𝑌

∆ 𝑃 =+𝑠 . 𝑔 1 ∗ ( 𝐻+ 𝑋 ) − 𝑠 . 𝑔 2 ∗𝑌 ∆ 𝑃 = 𝑨𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 − 𝒗𝒆

Transmitter Correction of (Zero Elevation Calibration)

 Conductivity meters

Conductivity measurement is done in power plants to get an idea about the soluble salts in condensate and feed water.

 A measure of how well a solution conducts electricity

 Water with absolutely no impurities (does not exist)
 Conducts electricity very poorly
 Impurities in water increase conductivity
 So, when measure conductivity of water can estimate the degree of impurities

 Conductivity is measured by
 Two plates placed in the sample
 Potential is applied across the plates and current is measured
 Conductivity (G), the inverse of resistivity (R) is determined from the voltage and
current values according to Ohm's law
 G = 1/R = I (amps) / E (volts)
• Basic unit of conductivity
• Siemens (S), formerly called the mho
• Cell geometry affects conductivity values
• Standardized measurements are expressed in specific conductivity units (S/cm) to compensate for variations in
electrode dimensions
• Specific conductivity (C) is the product of measured conductivity (G) and the electrode cell constant (L/A)
• L: length of the column of liquid between the electrode
• A: area of the electrodes
• C = G x (L/A)

• Conductivity measurements are temperature dependent

The degree to which temperature affects conductivity varies from
solution to solution

Calculated using the following formula:

Gt = Gtcal {1 + α(T-Tcal)} Conductivity is Non-Specific
Gt = conductivity at any temp T in °C
Gtcal = conductivity at calibration temp Tcal in °C
α = temperature coefficient of solution at Tcal in °C
 Conductivity Probe

• 2 metals in contact with electrolyte solution

• Voltage is applied to electrodes and

resulting current that flows btw electrodes is
used to determine conductance

• Amount of current flowing depends on:

• Solution conductivity

• Length, surface area, geometry of

electrodes

Apply an AC Voltage to Two Electrodes of Exact Dimensions

Acids, Bases and Salts (NaCl) Dissolve in Solution and Act as Current Carriers

Current Flow is Directly Proportional to the Total Dissolved Solids in Solution

Physical Dimensions of a Conductivity Electrode are Referred to as the Cell Constant
Cell Constant is Length/Area Relationship
Distance Between Plates = 1.0 cm
Area of Each Plate = 1.0 cm x 1.0 cm
Cell Constant = 1.0 cm-1

Specific conductivity (C) = Measured conductivity (G) X

electrode cell constant (L/A)

L: length of the column of liquid between the electrode

A: area of the electrodes

C = G x (L/A)
2-pole cell

In a traditional 2-pole cell, an alternating current is applied between

the 2 poles and the resulting voltage is measured.

• The aim is to measure the solution resistance (Rsol) only.

• However the resistance (Rel) caused by polarisation of the

electrodes and the field effect interferes with the measurement,
and both Rsol and Rel are measured.
 4-pole cell

In a 4-pole cell, a current is applied to the outer rings (1 and 4) in such a way that a constant potential difference is
maintained between the inner rings (2 and 3).

As this voltage measurement takes place with a negligible current, these two electrodes are not polarized (R2 = R3
= 0).

The conductivity will be directly proportional to the applied current.

The geometry of 4-pole cells with an outer tube minimizes the beaker field effect, due to the measurement
volume being well defined within the tube.

The position of the conductivity cell in the measuring vessel or the sample volume therefore has no influence on
the measurement.

 Measures Current and Voltage Drop

V
 Current Increases with an Increase in Voltage Drop Across
Electrodes
 Compensates for Minor Coatings on Conductivity Electrodes
 Used for Higher Range Measurement
 Toroidal "Inductive" conductivity

A toroidal conductivity measurement is made by passing an AC current through a toroidal drive coil, which
induces a current in the electrolyte solution

• No in contact with the solution.

• They are either encased in a polymeric material or are external to a flow through cell.
• One of the main disadvantages of toroidal conductivity measurements is that it lacks the sensitivity of contacting
measurement.
• Toroidal sensors are also typically larger than contacting sensors, and the solution current induced by the toroid
occupies a volume around the sensor. Hence, toroidal sensors need to be mounted in a larger pipe.
 Solid Level Detectors

• Capacitance level detector

• Ultrasonic level detector
• Microwave/Radar
• Vibrating or Tuning Fork
• Radiometry
 Solid Level Detectors

RADAR
• The measuring instrument sends microwave signals from above to the medium, which
reflects them (Similar to ultrasonic level detector).
• The distance to the product surface is determined on the basis of the microwave signals
received by the measuring instrument and the level is calculated.
• Very precise level information and also compensate for fixed structures within the container.

To capture as much of the container volume as possible, the sensor should be oriented so that the radar
signal reaches the lowest level in the container.

Advantages – very accurate, no calibration required, multiple output options

Disadvantages – expensive, can be affected by the environment, limited detection range

Applications – work well in foam and sticky substances. They are also used in systems in which temperatures vary.
 Solid Level Detectors
Vibrating or Tuning Fork

• The sensor has two piezoelectric crystals for oscillation and reception placed on a plate. The sensor detects decrease
in board vibration to know solid presence.

• Detect solids having bulk density as low as 0.02.

Advantages – Compact, cost effective

Disadvantages – Invasive, number of uses are limited

Applications – powders and fine grained solids within mining, chemical processing
and food and beverage industries.
 Solid Level Detectors
Radiometry

• Radiometric measurement is based on the gamma rays, i.e. radiation, emitted by Cs or Co-60.
• The sensor, located on the opposite side of the vessel, receives this radiation.
• The detector of the sensor converts the gamma radiation into signals, the number of which is
recorded and evaluated.

The radioactive source is mounted on one side of the container and the detector on the
opposite side.
No linear relationship between the pulse rate and the level.
For that reason, an adjustment must always be carried out.

Advantages – very accurate, no calibration required, multiple output options

Disadvantages – expensive, can be affected by the environment, limited detection range

Applications – work well in foam and sticky substances. They are also used in systems in which temperatures vary.
Thank
You