Introduction:

Basic Concepts and Notations

Complexity analysis: time space tradeoff
Algorithmic notations, Big O notation
Introduction to omega, theta and little o notation
 Algorithm
• A finite set of steps that must be followed to
solve any problem is called an algorithm.
Algorithm is generally developed before the
actual coding is done
 Pseudocode
• Pseudocode is a technique used to describe the
distinct steps of an algorithm in a manner that is
easy to understand for anyone with basic
programming knowledge.
• Although pseudocode is a syntax-
free description of an algorithm, it must provide
a full description of the algorithm’s logic so that
moving from it to implementation should be
merely a task of translating each line into code
using the syntax of any programming language.
The main constructs of pseudocode
•The core of pseudocode is the ability to
represent 6 programming constructs (always
written in uppercase): SEQUENCE, CASE, WHILE,
REPEAT-UNTIL, FOR, and IF-THEN-ELSE. These
constructs — also called keywords —are used to
describe the control flow of the algorithm.
• SEQUENCE represents linear tasks sequentially
performed one after the other.
• WHILE a loop with a condition at its beginning.
• REPEAT-UNTIL a loop with a condition at the
bottom.
• FOR another way of looping.
• IF-THEN-ELSE a conditional statement
changing the flow of the algorithm.
• CASE the generalization form of IF-THEN-ELSE.
 Overview of Data Structures
• Data Structures are a method of representing of logical relationships between
individual data elements related to the solution of a given problem.

• A data structure is a structured set of variables associated with one another in

different ways, co-operatively defining the components in the system and capable
of being operated upon in the program.

• Data structures are the basis of the programming tools. The choice of data
structures should provide the following:

1. The data structure should satisfactorily represent the relationship between the
data elements.

2. The data structure should be easy so that the programmer can easily process the
data.
 Classification of Data Structures
• Linear: The values are arranged in a linear fashion. E.g. Arrays, Linked Lists, Stacks,
Queues etc.

• Non-Linear: The values are not arranged in an order. E.g. Tree, Graph, Table etc.

• Homogeneous: Here all the values stored are of same type e.g. arrays

• Non- Homogeneous: Here all the values stored are of different type e.g. structures and
classes.

• Dynamic:A dynamic data structure is one that can grow or shrink as needed to contain

the data you want stored. That is, you can allocate new storage when it's needed and
discard that storage when you're done with it. E.g. pointers, or references

• Static:They're essentially fixed-size and often use much space E.g. Array
 Basic Notations
Algorithmic Notations:
Finite step by step list of well-defined instructions for solving a particular problem.
Formal presentation of the Algorithm consists of two parts:
1. A paragraph that tells the purpose of an algorithm. Identifies the variables which occur in the algorithm
and lists the input data.
2. The list of the steps that is to be executed.
Some conventions used in Algorithms:

 Identifying Number (Algorithm 2: )

 Steps, Control and Exit ( All statements are numbered, Go to and Exit)

 Comments (The comments are to be given to understand the meaning)

 Variable Names (capital letters are used for variable names)

 Assignment Statement (Max:=DATA[1])

 Input and output (Read: variable names, Write: Messages and/or variable names)

 Procedure
 Basic Notations
Control Structures:

1. Sequential Logic or Sequential Flow

2. Selection Logic or Conditional Flow

• If (condition) , then:

-----

[Endif]

• If (condition) , then:

-----

Else :

-------

[ Endif]
 • Multiple If (condition), then : -----

Elseif : -----

Else :

------

[Endif]

3. Iteration Logic (Repetitive Flow)

• for loop =>

Repeat for K=I to N:

[Module] [End of Loop]

• While loop=>
Repeat while K<= N:
(logic)
[end of while loop]
 Basic Concepts and Notations
Algorithm: Outline, the essence of a computational
procedure, step-by-step instructions

Program: an implementation of an algorithm in some

programming language

Data Structure: Organization of data needed to

solve the problem
Classification of Data Structures
Data Structures

Primitive Non-Primitive
Data Structures Data Structures
• Integer Linear Non-Linear
• Real Data Structures Data Structures
• Character • Array • Tree
• Boolean • Stack • Graph
• Queue
• Linked List
 Data Structure Operations
Data Structures are processed by using certain operations.
1.Traversing: Accessing each record exactly once so that certain
items in the record may be processed.

2.Searching: Finding the location of the record with a given key

value, or finding the location of all the records that satisfy one or
more conditions.

3.Inserting: Adding a new record to the structure.

4.Deleting: Removing a record from the structure.

 Special Data Structure-
Operations
• Sorting: Arranging the records in some logical order
(Alphabetical or numerical order).

• Merging: Combining the records in two different sorted

files into a single sorted file.
Algorithmic Problem
Specification
Specification of output as a
of input ? function of
input

Infinite number of input instances satisfying the

specification. For example: A sorted, non-decreasing
sequence of natural numbers of non-zero, finite
length:
1, 20, 908, 909, 100000, 1000000000.
3.
Algorithmic Solution
Specification
Specification of output as a
Algorithm
of input function of
input

Algorithm describes actions on the input instance

Infinitely many correct algorithms for the same
algorithmic problem
What is a Good Algorithm?
Efficient:
Running time
Space used
Efficiency as a function of input size:
The number of bits in an input number
Number of data elements(numbers, points)
MCQs
. Which of these best describes an array?
a) A data structure that shows a hierarchical
behaviour
b) Arrays are immutable once initialised
c) Container of objects of similar types
d) Array is not a data structure
How do you initialize an array in C?
a) int arr[3] = (1,2,3);
b) int arr(3) = {1,2,3};
c) int arr[3] = {1,2,3};
d) int arr(3) = (1,2,3);
How do you instantiate an array in Java?
a) int arr[] = new int(3);
b) int arr[];
c) int arr[] = new int[3];
d) int arr() = new int(3);
Which of the following is a correct way to declare
a multidimensional array in Java?
a) int[] arr;
b) int arr[[]];
c) int[][]arr;
d) int[[]] arr;
What are the advantages of arrays?
a) Objects of mixed data types can be stored
b) Elements in an array cannot be sorted
c) Easier to store elements of same data type
d) Index of first element of an array is 1
 What are the disadvantages of arrays?
a) Data structure like queue or stack cannot be
implemented
b) There are chances of wastage of memory space
if elements inserted in an array are lesser than the
allocated size
c) Index value of an array can be negative
d) Elements are sequentially accessed
Assuming int is of 4bytes, what is the size of int
arr[15];?
a) 15
b) 19
c) 11
d) 60
 Complexity analysis
Why we should analyze algorithms?
Predict the resources that the algorithm requires
 Computational time (CPU consumption)
 Memory space (RAM consumption)

 Communication bandwidth consumption

The running time of an algorithm is:

 The total number of primitive operations executed (machine
independent steps)
 It is a determination of order of magnitude of statement.

 Also known as algorithm complexity

 Time Complexity
Worst-case
An upper bound on the running time for any input of
given size
Average-case
Assume all inputs of a given size are equally likely
Best-case
The lower bound on the running time
 Time Complexity – Example
Sequential search in a list of size n
Worst-case:
 n comparisons
Best-case:
 1 comparison
Average-case:
 n/2 comparisons
 time space tradeoff
A time space tradeoff is a situation where the memory use
can be reduced at the cost of slower program execution
(and, conversely, the computation time can be reduced at
the cost of increased memory use).

A space-time or time-memory tradeoff is a way of
solving a problem or calculation in less time by using
more storage space (or memory), or by solving a problem
in very little space by spending a long time.
 time space tradeoff
As the relative costs of CPU cycles, RAM space, and hard
drive space change—hard drive space has for some time
been getting cheaper at a much faster rate than other
components of computers—the appropriate choices for
time space tradeoff have changed radically.

Often, by exploiting a time space tradeoff, a program can

be made to run much faster.
 Asymptotic notations
Algorithm complexity is rough estimation of
the number of steps performed by given
computation depending on the size of the
input data
Measured through asymptotic notation
 O(g) where g is a function of the input data size
Examples:
 Linear complexity O(n) – all elements are processed once (or
constant number of times)
 Quadratic complexity O(n2) – each of the elements is
processed n times
 Big-O Notation (O)
Asymptotic Upper Bound
 Omega Notation (Ω)
Asymptotic Lower Bound
 Theta Notation (Θ)
g(n) is an asymptotically tight bound of f(n)
Big O notation
f(n)=O(g(n)) iff there exist a positive constant c and
non-negative integer n0 such that
f(n)  cg(n) for all nn0.
g(n) is said to be an upper bound of f(n).
Basic rules
1. Nested loops are multiplied together.
2. Sequential loops are added.
3. Only the largest term is kept, all others are
dropped.
4. Constants are dropped.
5. Conditional checks are constant (i.e. 1).
Example 1
//linear
for(int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
 cout << i << endl;
}
Ans: O(n)
Example 2
//quadratic
for(int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
 for(int j = 0; j < n; j++){
 //do swap stuff, constant time
 }
}
Ans O(n^2)
Example 3
for(int i = 0; i < 2*n; i++) {
 cout << i << endl;
}
At first you might say that the upper bound is O(2n);
however, we drop constants so it becomes O(n)
Example 4
//linear
for(int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
 cout << i << endl;
}
 
//quadratic
for(int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
 for(int j = 0; j < n; j++){
 //do constant time stuff
 }
}
Ans : In this case we add each loop's Big O, in this
case n+n^2. O(n^2+n) is not an acceptable answer
since we must drop the lowest term. The upper bound
is O(n^2). Why? Because it has the largest growth
rate
Example 5
for(int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
 for(int j = 0; j < 2; j++){
 //do stuff
 }
}
Ans: Outer loop is 'n', inner loop is 2, this we have 2n,
dropped constant gives up O(n)
Example 6
x=y+z;

for(i=1; i<= n; i++)

x=y+z;

for(i=1; i<=n/2; i++)

for(j=1; j<=n; j++)
x=y+z;
Example 7
x=y+z;

for(i=1; i<= n; i++)

x=y+z;

for(i=1; i<=n; i++)

for(j=1; j<=n; j++)
x=y+z;
a=b+c;
Example 8
while(n>1)
{
n=n-1;
a=b+c;
}
Example 10
while(n>=1)
{
n=n-20;
n=n-5;
n=n-2;

}
Example 11
while(n>=1)
{
n=n-20;
n=n+5;
n=n-30;

}
Example 12
while(n>=1)
{
n=n/2;
}
Example 13
while(n>=1)
{
n=n/2;
n=n/3;
}
Example 14
while(n>=1)
{
n=n-2;
n=n/2;

}
Example 15
for(int i = 1; i < n; i *= 2) {
 cout << i << endl;
}
There are n iterations, however, instead of simply
incrementing, 'i' is increased by 2*itself each run.
Thus the loop is log(n).
Example 16
for(int i = 0; i < n; i++) { //linear
 for(int j = 1; j < n; j *= 2){ // log (n)
 //do constant time stuff
 }
}
Ans: n*log(n)
Example 17
while(n>2)
{
n=√n;
}
Example 18
while(n>2)
{
n=n2;
n=√n;
n=n-2;
}
Example 19
x=y+z;

for(i=1; i<= n; i++)

{
j=2;
while(j<=n)
{
j=j2;
}

}
Example 20
Main()
{
While(n>2)
{
n=√n;
n=n/2;
n=n-2;
}
}
Example 21
main()
{
While(n>1)
{
n=n/2;
a=a+b;
}
}
Example 22
main()
{
While(n>=1)
{
n=n/2;
}
}
Example 23
main()
{
z = n^3
While(z>1)
{
z=z-1;
a=b+c;
X=x+y;
}
}
Example 24
main()
{
 for(i=1;i<=n;i=3*i)
{j=1;
 While(j<=n)
 {
 j=j*3;
 }
 }
}
Example 25
main()
{
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
 for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
for(k=1;k<=143;k++)
{
x=y+z;
}

}
}
}
main()
{
P=0;
for(i=1;p<=n;i++)
{
P=p+i
}
}
Proof of log complexity
 n->n/2
 n/2^0 -> n/2^1-> n/2^2-> n/2^3
 n/2^k=1
 n=2^k
 taking log on both side
 log2 n =log2 2^k

 k= log2 n
Comp 122
Thank You