Use Advanced Structured Query Language

LO1. Write advanced SQL statement to retrieve and sort data

Duration
(In Hours)=130
Set by:Yeshiwas Mekonnen
ADET TVET College
2015 E.C
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Concepts in Advanced database system

A database system is a way of organizing information on a
computer, implemented by a set of computer programs. This kind
of organization should offer:
 Simplicity - an easy way to collect, access-connects, and
display information;
 Stability - to prevent unnecessary loss of data;
 Security - to protect against unauthorized access to private
data;
 Speed - For fast results in a short time and for easy
maintenance in case of changes in the organization that
stores the information.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Advanced database system concepts include:

 Proper use of indexes.
 Triggers
 Stored procedures
A Trigger is a special kind of stored procedure that executes
whenever an attempt is made to modify data in a table that the
trigger protects.
Stored procedure is set of Structured Query Language (SQL)
statements that perform particular task.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

1.2 Review of SQL

Structured Query Language
 Standard for relational database management systems
 Specify syntax/semantics for data definition and
manipulation.
 Define data structures
 Enable portability
 Specify minimal standards
 Allow for later growth/enhancement to standard
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Benefits of a standardized relational language
 Reduced training costs
 Productivity
 Application portability
 Application longevity
 Reduced dependence on a single vendor
 Cross-system communication
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

SQL Environment
Catalog: a set of schemas that constitute the description of
a database.
Schema: the structure that contains descriptions of objects
created by a user (base tables, views, constraints …)
DDL: commands that define a database, including creating,
altering, and dropping tables and establishing constraints
DML: commands that maintain and query a database.
DCL (Data Control Language): commands that control a
database, including administering privileges and
committing data.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language
Some SQL Data Types
strings type
o Char(n) - fixed length character data, n characters long. Maximum
length= 2000 bytes.
o varchar(n) - variable length character data
- Maximum length=4000 bytes
o long – variable length character data, up to 4 GB . Maximum 1 per
table.
Numeric types
o Number(p,q) – general purpose numeric data type
o Integer(p) – signed integer, p digits wide
o Float(p) - floating point in scientific notation with p binary.
o Date/Time type - Date - fixed length date/time in dd-mm-yyyy form
Use Advanced Structured Query Language
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

SQL Database Definition

 DDL: The Major create statements include:
 Create schema – defines a portion of the database owned
by a particular user
 Create table - defines a table and its columns
 Create views - defines a logical table from one or more
tables.
 Other creates statements such as create function, create
trigger, create index, and so on.
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 Use Advanced Structured Query Language
Data Integrity Controls
Data integrity controls refer to the consistency and
accuracy of data that is stored in a database.
Data Integrity validates the data before getting stored in the
columns of the table.
• types of data integrity:
 Domain Integrity
 Entity Integrity
 Referential Integrity
Each type of data integrity – domain, Entity, and referential
is enforced with separate types of constraints.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language
 Domain Integrity:
• Domain integrity is the validity of entries for a given column.
• You can enforce domain integrity by restricting the type
(through data types), the format (through CHECK constraints
and rules), or the range of possible values (through
FOREIGN KEY constraints, CHECK constraints, DEFAULT
definitions, NOT NULL definitions, and rules).
 Entity Integrity:
• Entity integrity defines a row as a unique entity for a
particular table. We can enforce the Entity Integrity through
the indexes, UNIQUE constraints, PRIMARY KEY
constraints, or IDENTITY properties
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 Referential Integrity
• Referential integrity maintains the defined relationships
between tables when records are entered or deleted.
When you enforce referential integrity, SQL Server
prevents users from:  
- Adding records to a related table if there is no associated
record in the primary table.
- Changing values in a primary table that result in orphaned
records in a related table.  
- Deleting records from a primary table if there are
matching related records.     
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• Changing and Removing Tables

- Alter table statement allows you to change column
specifications.
- Drop table statement allows you to remove tables from your
schema.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

1.3 SQL query keywords

SELECT clause
WHERE Clause
ORDER BY Clause
INNER JOIN Clause
INSERT Statement
UPDATE Statement
DELETE Statement
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Insert statement: - Insert statement is used to add/insert new records or from

another tables to a particular table.
Delete statement: - Remove/delete row/s from a table.
Update statement: - Modifies data in existing rows
Select statement: - Used to queries from a single or multiple tables.
Select - lists the column/s that should be returned from the query.
From - indicate the table/s or view/s from which data will be obtained
Where - indicate the conditions under which row/s will be included in the result.
Group by – indicate categorization of results.
Having – indicate the conditions under which a category (group) will be
included.
Order by – sorts the result according to specified criteria.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

• Use Aggregate function: - Use aggregate function such as sum, average,

product, count, max, min, and so on.
• Use Boolean operators: - Use AND, OR, and NOT operators for
customizing conditions in where clause.
1.4 Basic SELECT (Query) statement
• You can write SQL statements on one line or on many lines.
 The SQL statements can be run on SQL tables and views, and database
physical and logical files.
 Character strings specified in an SQL statement (such as those used with
WHERE or VALUES clauses) are case sensitive; that is, uppercase
characters must be entered in uppercase and lowercase characters must be
entered in lowercase.
• WHERE ADMRDEPT='a00' (does not return a result)
• WHERE ADMRDEPT='A00' (returns a valid department number)
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• The general syntax of SELECT statement looks like this:

• SELECT column names FROM table or view name
WHERE search condition GROUP BY column names
HAVING search condition ORDER BY column-name
• The SELECT and FROM clauses must be specified. The other
clauses are optional.
• With the SELECT clause, you specify the name of each
column you want to retrieve.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

• The FROM clause specifies the table that you want to select
data from. You can select columns from more than one table.
• You can specify that only one column be retrieved or as many
as 8000 columns. The value of each column you name is
retrieved in the order specified in the SELECT clause.
• If you want to retrieve all columns (in the same order as they
appear in the table's definition), use an asterisk (*) instead of
naming the columns.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

1.5 Basic SELECT Query

 Simple selects
 Joins/ join types
 Aggregate operators
 Aggregation by groups and groups condition
 Sub queries/ sub queries in FROM
 Union, Intersect, Except
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language
• Simple selects
• The simple select statement select clause which used to
specify the columns you want to retrieve, from clause which
used to specify the tables from which the columns are to be
retrieved, and the where clause which used to limits the rows
returned by your query.
• Here is the basic syntax:
• SELECT <column_list> FROM <table_list> <[WHERE
<search_criteria>]>
• Example: SELECT distinct salary FROM Employee where
Gender ='female'
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Joins/ join types
Joining data from more than one table
• Sometimes the information you want to see is not in a single table.
• To form a row of the result table, you might want to retrieve some column values from
one table and some column values from another table.
• You can retrieve and join column values from two or more tables into a single row.
Several different types of joins are:
inner join
left outer join
right outer join
left exception join
right exception join
Cross join
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 An Inner Join returns only the rows from each table that have
matching values in the join columns. Any rows that do not have
a match between the tables will not appear in the result table.
 A Left Outer Join returns values for all of the rows from the first
table (the table on the left) and the values from the second table for
the rows that match. Any rows that do not have a match in the second
table will return the null value for all columns from the second table.
 A Right Outer Join return values for all of the rows from the second
table (the table on the right) and the values from the first table for the
rows that match. Any rows that do not have a match in the first table
will return the null value for all columns from the first table.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

 A Left Exception Join returns only the rows from the left
table that do not have a match in the right table. Columns in
the result table that come from the right table have the null
value.
 A Right Exception Join returns only the rows from the right
table that do not have a match in the left table. Columns in the
result table that come from the left table have the null value.
 A Cross Join returns a row in the result table for each
combination of rows from the tables being joined (a Cartesian
product).
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language
• Subqueries:
A Subquery or Inner query or Nested query is a query within
another SQL query, and embedded within the WHERE clause.
- You use subqueries to break down a complex query into a
series of logical steps and, as a result, to solve a problem with
single statements.
- Each select statement in the subquery has its own:
. select list
. where clause
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language
• A subquery is used to return data that will be used in the main
query as a condition to further restrict the data to be retrieved.
• Subqueries can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,
and DELETE statements (or inside another subquery) along
with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN etc.
• There are a few rules that subqueries must follow:
 Subqueries must be enclosed within parentheses.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language
 A subquery can have only one column in the SELECT clause, unless
multiple columns are in the main query for the subquery to compare its
selected columns.
 An ORDER BY cannot be used in a subquery, although the main query can
use an ORDER BY. The GROUP BY can be used to perform the same
function as the ORDER BY in a subquery.
 Subqueries that return more than one row can only be used with multiple
value operators, such as the IN operator.
 A subquery cannot be immediately enclosed in a set function.
 The BETWEEN operator cannot be used with a subquery;
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Example: For each department that has more than five

employees, retrieve the department number and the
number of its employees who are making more than
$40,000.
SELECT DNUMBER, COUNT (*) FROM DEPARTMENT,
EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO AND SALARY>40000
AND
DNO IN (SELECT DNO FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY DNO
HAVING COUNT (*) > 5)
GROUP BY DNUMBER
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language
• Union, Intersect, Except
• With the help of set operators, the results of individual table
expressions can be combined. This type of combination is
called UNION. SQL supports other set operators besides the
UNION operator.
• Here is the complete list:
UNION
UNION ALL
INTERSECT
INTERSECT ALL
EXCEPT
EXCEPT ALL
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Combining tables with union

• The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more
SELECT statements.
- Each SELECT statement within the UNION must have the same
number of columns and similar data types.
- Also, the columns in each SELECT statement must be in the same
order.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name_list> FROM <table_name> UNION SELECT
<column_name_list>
FROM <table_name>
• Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To
allow duplicate values, use UNION ALL.
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Rules for using UNION

• The following rules must be applied to use the UNION operator:
. The SELECT clauses of all relevant table expressions must have
the same number of expressions
. Each SELECT statement within the UNION must have similar data
types. If this applies, the table expressions are union compatible.
. An ORDER BY clause can be specified only after the last table
expression. The sorting is performed on the entire end result; after
all intermediate results have been combined.
. The SELECT clauses should not contain DISTINCT because SQL
automatically removes duplicate rows when using UNION.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Combining with INTERSECT

• INTERSECT returns all rows that are both in the result of
query1 and in the result of query2. Duplicate rows are
eliminated unless ALL is specified.
• If two table expressions are combined with the INTERSECT
operator, the end result consists of those rows that appear in
the results of both table expressions.
Example: SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE INTERSECT SELECT *
FROM PROJECT;
- Just as with the UNION operator, duplicate rows are
automatically removed from the result.
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Combining with EXCEPT

• EXCEPT returns all rows those are in the result of query1 but
not in the result of query2. Again, duplicates are eliminated
unless ALL is specified.
• If two table expressions are combined with the EXCEPT
operator, the end result consists of only the rows that appear in
the result of the first table expression but do not appear in the
result of the second.
Example: SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE EXCEPT SELECT * FROM PROJECT;

• Just as with the UNION operator, duplicate rows are

automatically removed from the result.
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1.6 Basics of the SELECT Statement and conditional

selection

• The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

• The result is stored in a result table, called the result-set.
Syntax of the basic select statement includes:
Select-From-Where Statements
• SELECT desired attributes
• FROM one or more tables
• WHERE condition about tuples of the tables
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1.7 Operators in SQL

Comparison operators
• A comparison (or relational) operator is a mathematical
symbol or a keyword which is used to compare between
two values.
- Comparison operators are used in conditions that compare
one expression with another.
- The result of a comparison can be TRUE, FALSE, or
UNKNOWN.
- SQL Comparison operator is used mainly with the SELECT
statement to filter data based on specific conditions.
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Comparison operator Description

= equal to
<>, != is not equal to
<  less than
> greater than
>= greater than or equal to
<= less than or equal to
In "Equivalent to any member of" test, Equivalent to "= ANY".
Not In Equivalent to "! = ANY".
All Compares a value with every value in a list
[Not] between [Not] greater than or equal to x and less than or equal to y.
Is [not]null Tests for nulls
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•Note: The != operator is converted to <> in the parser stage.
Boolean operators in SQL
• Boolean Operators are simple words (AND, OR, or NOT) used as
conjunctions to combine or exclude keywords in a search.
. When you want retrieving data using a SELECT statement, you can use
logical operators in the WHERE clause to combine more than one condition.
• Example: Retrieve all students’ first name, last name, subject who are
studying either ‘Maths’ or ‘Science’.
SELECT first_name, last_name,subject FROM student
WHERE subject = 'Maths' OR subject = 'Science'
• The AND and OR operator combines two logical operands.
. The NOT operator inverts the result of a comparison expression or a
logical expression.
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SQL Equality Operator Query
• Operators are the mathematical and equality symbols which are used to
compare, evaluate, or calculate values.
• Equality operators include the (<), (>), and (=) symbols, which are used to
compare one value against another.
• Equality involves comparing two values.
• To do so requires the use of the (<), (>), or (=) special characters.
Does X = Y? Is Y < X?
These are both questions that can be answered using a SQL Equality
Operator expression.
• SQL operators are generally found inside of queries-- more specifically, in
the conditional statements of the WHERE clause.
SELECT customer,day_of_order FROM orders
WHERE day_of_order > '7/31/08'
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SQL - Mathematical Operators

• SQL mathematical operators are reserved words or characters
which are used primarily in a SQL statement's WHERE clause
to perform operation(s), such as comparisons and arithmetic
operations.
• SQL mathematical operations can be performed using
mathematical operators (+, -, *, /, and % (Modulo) and
comparisons operators ((<, >, and =)).
SELECT EmpID, FirstName, LastName FROM
EMPLOYEE WHERE (Salary + Bonus)>5000;
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LO2: Write Advanced SQL statements that use functions

• Arithmetical operators in SQL
• Arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical
functions in SQL—the same as in most other languages.
• Arithmetic Addition in SQL:
Select Salary, (salary+100) ,(salary+1000),(salary+5000) from
EMPLOYEE
• Arithmetic subtraction in SQL:
Select Salary, (salary-100) ,(salary-1000),(5000-salary) from EMPLOYEE
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• Arithmetic Multiplication in SQL:
Select Salary, (salary*100) ,(salary*1000),(salary*5000) from
EMPLOYEE
•Arithmetic Division in SQL:
Select Salary, (salary/100) ,(salary/1000),(salary/5000) from EMPLOYEE
• You can do all kinds of Arithmetic combinations in this.
select (100+Salary)*200 ,salary,(salary-Bonus),( (Salary+Bonus)/0.100)
from EMPLOYEE
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Mathematical functions in SQL

• A function is a predefined formula which takes one or more
arguments as input then processes the arguments and returns
an output.
• SQL mathematical function executes a mathematical
operation usually based on input values that are provided as
arguments, and return a numeric value as the result of the
operation. Mathematical functions operates on numeric data
such as decimal, integer, float, real, smallint, and tinyint.
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• Some of the Arithmetic functions are:

- abs()
- floor()
- sqrt()
- exp()
- power()
- Round()
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abs() : This SQL ABS() returns the absolute value of a number passed as argument
Example: SELECT ABS(-17.36)FROM TRAINEE
floor() : The SQL FLOOR() rounded up any positive or negative decimal value down to
the next least integer value.
SQL DISTINCT along with the SQL FLOOR() function is used to retrieve only unique value
after rounded down to the next least integer value depending on the column specified.
Example: SELECT floor(17.26)FROM TRAINEE
exp() : The SQL EXP() returns e raised to the n-th power(n is the numeric expression),
where e is the base of natural algorithm and the value of e is approximately 2.71828183.
Example: SELECT EXP(2) AS e_to_2s_power FROM TRAINEE
power() : This SQL POWER(a,b) function returns the value of a number raised to another,
where both of the numbers are passed as arguments. Here A=base and B=exponent
Example: SELECT POWER(2,3)FROM TRAINEE
sqrt() : The SQL SQRT() returns the square root of given value in the argument.
Example: SELECT SQRT(Credit)FROM TRAINEE
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SQL Character Function

• SQL character or string function is a function which takes one or
more characters as parameters and returns a character value.
Some Character functions are -
lower() : The SQL LOWER() function is used to convert all
characters of a string to lower case.
Syntax: SELECT LOWER('TESTING FOR LOWER FUNCTION')
AS Testing_Lower
FROM TRAINEE

upper(): The SQL UPPER() function is used to convert all

characters of a string to uppercase.
syntax: SELECT UPPER('testing for upper function')
AS Testing_Upper
FROM TRAINEE
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Date functions in SQL
• The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure
that the format of the date you are trying to insert, matches the
format of the date column in the database.
• As long as your data contains only the date portion, your
queries will work as expected.
• The following table lists the most important built-in date
functions in SQL Server:
- GETDATE()
- DATEPART()
- DATEADD()
- DATEDIFF()
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GETDATE() : The GETDATE() function returns the current date and time from the
SQL Server.
Syntax: GETDATE()
Example: CREATE TABLE Orders(OrderId int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
ProductName varchar(50) NOT NULL,OrderDate datetime NOT NULL
DEFAULT GETDATE())
SELECT GETDATE() AS CurrentDateTime
DATEPART() : The DATEPART() function is used to return a single part of a
date/time, such as year, month, day, hour, minute, etc.
Syntax: DATEPART(datepart,date)
Example: SELECT DATEPART(yyyy,OrderDate) AS OrderYear,
DATEPART(mm,OrderDate) AS OrderMonth,
DATEPART(dd,OrderDate) AS OrderDay
FROM Orders WHERE OrderId=1
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DATEADD() : The DATEADD() function adds or subtracts a

specified time interval from a date.
Where date is a valid date expression and number is the number
of interval you want to add. The number can either be positive,
for dates in the future, or negative, for dates in the past.
Syntax: DATEADD(datepart,number,date)
Example: SELECT OrderId,DATEADD(day,45,OrderDate) AS
OrderPayDate
FROM Orders
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DATEDIFF() : The DATEDIFF() function returns the time between two

dates.
Syntax: DATEDIFF(datepart,startdate,enddate)

Example: Now we want to get the number of days between two

dates. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT DATEDIFF(day,'2008-06-05','2008-08-05') AS DiffDate
Result: 61
• Now we want to get the number of days between two dates (notice
that the second date is "earlier" than the first date, and will result in
a negative number). We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT DATEDIFF(day,'2008-08-05','2008-06-05') AS DiffDate
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• SQL Date Data Types

• SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a
date or a date/time value in the database:
• DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD
• DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
• SMALLDATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
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• SQL Working with Dates

• You can compare two dates easily if there is no time
component involved!
• Assume we have the following "Orders" table:

OrderId ProductName OrderDate

1 computer 2008-11-11

2 Digital Camera 2008-11-09

3 Printer 2008-11-11

4 Scanner 2008-10-29
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• Now we want to select the records with an OrderDate of
"2008-11-11" from the table above.
• We use the following SELECT statement:
• SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'
• The result-set will look like this:

OrderId ProductName OrderDate

1 Computer 2008-11-11

3 Printer 2008-11-11
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• Now, assume that the "Orders" table looks like this (notice the
time component in the "OrderDate" column):

OrderId ProductName OrderDate

1 Computer 2008-11-11 13:23:44

2 Digital Camera 2008-11-09 15:45:21

3 Printer 2008-11-11 11:12:01

4 Scanner 2008-10-29 14:56:59

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• If we use the same SELECT statement as above:

•SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-
11'
• We will get no result! This is because the query is looking
only for dates with no time portion.
 Tip: If you want to keep your queries simple and easy to
maintain, do not allow time components in your dates!
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SQL aggregate functions

• An aggregate function operates on many records and produces
a summary; works with GROUP BY.
• Useful SQL Aggregate Functions

MIN returns the smallest value in a given column

MAX returns the largest value in a given column
returns the sum of the numeric values in a given
SUM
column
AVG returns the average value of a given column
COUNT returns the total number of values in a given column
COUNT(*) returns the number of rows in a table
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• Aggregate functions are used to compute against a

"returned column of numeric data" from your SELECT
statement. They basically summarize the results of a
particular column of selected data.
 The count function Returns the number of items in
expression. The data type returned is of type int.
Syntax: COUNT ( [ALL | DISTINCT] <expression> | * )         
Example: select COUNT(*), AVG(Employee.Salary) from
dbo. Employee
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- With the exception of the COUNT (*) function, all aggregate

functions return a NULL if no rows satisfy the WHERE
clause. The COUNT (*) function returns a value of zero if no
rows satisfy the WHERE clause.
 The MAX function Returns the maximum value from
expression. Max ignores any NULL values.
Syntax: MAX ( [ALL | DISTINCT] <expression> )   
        Example: select MAX(Employee.Salary) from dbo.
Employee
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 The MIN function Returns the smallest value from

expression. Min ignores any NULL values.
Syntax: MIN ( [ALL | DISTINCT] <expression> )
    Example: select MIN(Employee.Salary) from dbo.
Employee
 The SUM function Returns the total of all values in
expression. Sum ignores any NULL values.
Syntax: SUM ( [ALL | DISTINCT] <expression> )
       Example: select SUM(Employee.Salary) from dbo.
Employee
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 The AVERAGE function Returns the average of the values

in expression. The expression must contain numeric values.
Null values are ignored.
syntax: AVG ([ ALL | DISTINCT ] <expression>)
Example: select ID, avg(Employee.Salary) from dbo.
Employee
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 The Variance and Standard Deviation function

- STDEV: Returns the standard deviation of all values in
expression. Stdev ignores any NULL values. 
Syntax: STDEV( <expression> )
Example: select STDEV(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
- STDEVP: Returns the standard deviation for the population of
all values in expression. Stdevp ignores any NULL values.
Syntax: STDEVP( <expression> )
Example: select STDEVP(Employee.Salary) from dbo.
Employee
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- VAR:  Returns the variance of all values in expression. Var

ignores any NULL values.
syntax: VAR( <expression> )
Example: select VAR(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
- VARP: Returns the variance for the population of
all values in expression. Varp ignores any NULL values.
syntax: VARP( <expression> )
Example: select VARP(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
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LO3. Write advanced SQL statements that use aggregation and filtering
SQL - Grouping By Multiple Columns
• When an aggregate function is executed, SQL Server summarizes
values for an entire table or for groups of columns within the table,
producing a single value for each set of rows for the specified
columns.
• You can use aggregate functions with the SELECT statement or in
combination with the GROUP BY clause
• Use the GROUP BY clause on columns or expression to organize
rows into groups and to summarize those groups. The GROUP
BY clause groups rows on the basis of similarities between them.
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o When you use the GROUP BY clause, consider the following

facts and guidelines:
 SQL Server returns only single rows for each group that you
specify; it does not return detail information.
 All columns that are specified in the GROUP BY clause must
be included in the select list.
 If you include a WHERE clause, SQL Server groups only the
rows that satisfy the search conditions.
 Do not use the GROUP BY clause on columns that contain
multiple null values.
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Example1: For each department, retrieve the department name,

the number of employees in the department, and their average
salary; catagorize by the TraineeID, Departement and name
respectively.
SELECT DEPARTEMENT.Dname ,
COUNT (EMPLOYEE.ID)'number of employee',
AVG (EMPLOYEE.salary)'average salary'
FROM EMPLOYEE,DEPARTEMENT
where EMPLOYEE.dnum =DEPARTEMENT.Dnumber
GROUP BY DEPARTEMENT.Dname
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Example2: Retrieve all trainees’ TraineeID, Name, Departement , the

number of course taken by each trainee and catagorize by the TraineeID,
Departement and name.
select TRAINEE .TraineeID ,
TRAINEE .Name,
TRAINEE .Departement,
COUNT(COURSE.Course_Code )'number of course taken'
from TRAINEE ,GRADE_REPORT ,COURSE
where TRAINEE .TraineeID =GRADE_REPORT .TraineeID and
GRADE_REPORT .Course_Code =COURSE .Course_Code
group by TRAINEE .TraineeID , TRAINEE .Departement,TRAINEE .Name
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Filtering SQL: HAVING Clause

• The Having clause is optional and used in combination with the Group
By clause. It is similar to the Where clause, but the Having clause
establishes restrictions that determine which records are displayed after
they have been grouped.
• The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword
could not be used with aggregate functions.
• Basic syntax of having clause:
SELECT column1, ... column_n, aggregate_function (expression)
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY column1, ... column_n]
HAVING condition
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

SQL: Sub-select, sorting by aggregate review data

• Subquery or Inner query or Nested query is a query in other
query. A subquery is usually added in the WHERE Clause of
the sql statement. Most of the time, a subquery is used when
you know how to search for a value using a SELECT
statement, but do not know the exact value.
• Subqueries can be used with select, insert, update, and delete
along with the comparision operators like =, <, >, >=, <= etc.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Example: SELECT first_name, last_name, subject

FROM student_details
WHERE games NOT IN ('Cricket', 'Football');
1) Usually, a subquery should return only one record, but
sometimes it can also return multiple records when used with
operators like IN, NOT IN in the where clause.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

2) Lets consider the student_details table which we have used

earlier. If you know the name of the students who are studying
science subject, you can get their id's by using this query below,
SELECT id, first_name
FROM student_details
WHERE first_name IN ('Rahul', 'Stephen');
• but, if you do not know their names, then to get their id's you
need to write the query in this manner,
SELECT id, first_name
FROM student_details
WHERE first_name IN (SELECT first_name
FROM student_details
WHERE subject= 'Science');
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

• Output:

id first_name
-------- -------------
100 Rahul
102 Stephen

• In the above sql statement, first the inner query is processed

first and then the outer query is processed.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

3) Sub query can be used with INSERT statement to add rows of

data from one or more tables to another table. Lets try to group all
the students who study Maths in a table 'maths_group'.
INSERT INTO maths_group(id, name)
SELECT id, first_name || ' ' || last_name
FROM student_details WHERE subject= 'Maths'
4) A subquery can be used in the SELECT statement as follows.
Lets use the product and order_items table defined in the sql_joins
section.
select p.product_name, p.supplier_name, (select order_id from
order_items where product_id = 101) as order_id from product p
where p.product_id = 101
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Correlated Subquery
• A query is called correlated subquery when both the inner query
and the outer query are interdependent. For every row processed
by the inner query, the outer query is processed as well. The inner
query depends on the outer query before it can be processed.
SELECT p.product_name FROM product p
WHERE p.product_id = (SELECT o.product_id FROM order_items
o
WHERE o.product_id = p.product_id);
NOTE:
1) You can nest as many queries you want but it is recommended not to nest more
than 16 subqueries in oracle.
2) If a subquery is not dependent on the outer query it is called a non-correlated
subquery.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

LO4:Single and nested queries

What is query?
A query is a request for information from a database (Queries are
Questions).
Single query is a Single Block query.
Example: SELECT distinct salary FROM Employee where
Gender ='female'
A SQL nested query is a SELECT query that is nested inside a
SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, or DELETE SQL query.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Nested Queries are queries that contain another complete SELECT

statements nested within it, that is, in the WHERE clause.
 The nested SELECT statement is called an “inner query” or an
“inner SELECT.”
 The main query is called “outer SELECT” or “outer query.”
 The use of nested query in this case is to avoid explicit coding of
JOIN which is a very expensive database operation and to
improve query performance.
Example: SELECT ID,LNAME, FNAME FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE (SELECT COUNT (*) FROM DEPENDENTED
WHERE DEPENDENTED.EmpID =EMPLOYEE.ID) >= 2
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Subqueries
• A subquery is a query that is nested inside a SELECT, INSERT,
UPDATE, or DELETE statement, or inside another subquery.
- Subquery is an inner query or inner select, while the statement
containing a subquery is also called an outer query or outer
select.
- You use subqueries to break down a complex query into a series
of logical steps and, as a result, to solve a problem with single
statements.
- Each select statement in the subquery has its own:
. select list
. where clause
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Operators in sub queries

 The IN, ALL, and ANY operators in subquery.
 IN operator
The IN operator is an operator that allows you to specify
multiple values in a WHERE clause.
A row from a table satisfies a condition with the IN operator if
the value of a particular column occurs in a set of expressions.
The expressions in such a set entered one by one by a user.
Syntax to use IN operator:
SELECT column_name(s)FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Examle: SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName IN

('Aster','Maru')
SELECT * FROM employee WHERE Dnum IN(SELECT Dnum
FROM DEPARTEMENT WHERE
Dname = 'Research');
Any operator
ANY operator is an operator that compares a value to each value in a
list or results from a query and evaluates to true if the result of an inner
query contains at least one row. ANY must be preceded by
comparison operators.
Syntax to use Any operator:
SELECT column_name(s)FROM table_name
WHERE column_name =any(value1,value2,...)
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Example:
SELECT ID ,fname,lname FROM EMPLOYEE where Dnum
=any(select COUNT(*) from DEPARTEMENT where
Dnumber='ict001')
All operators
• ALL operator is used to select all records of a
SELECT STATEMENT. It compares a value to every value in
a list or results from a query. The ALL must be preceded by
the comparison operators and evaluates to TRUE if the query
returns no rows. For example, ALL means greater than every
value, means greater than the maximum value.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Suppose ALL (1, 2, 3) means greater than 3.

Syntax to use All operator: SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name =all(value1,value2,...)
SOME operators
SOME operator is the same as ANY operator (SOME and ANY perform
the same function).
SOME compares a value to each value in a list or results from a query and
evaluates to true if the result of an inner query contains at least one row.
SOME must match at least one row in the subquery and must be preceded
by comparison operators.
Example: SELECT ID,Fname,Lname FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE ID =SOME(SELECT EmpID FROM DEPENDENTED
WHERE Gender='Female');
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

EXISTS operator
• The EXIST operator checks the existence of a result of a
subquery. The EXISTS subquery tests whether a
subquery fetches at least one row. When no data is
returned then this operator returns 'FALSE'.
- A valid EXISTS subquery must contain an outer
reference and it must be a correlated subquery.
- You can use the EXISTS and NON EXISTS operators to
determine whether data exists in a list of values.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Example: SELECT DepID ,Fname ,Gender FROM

DEPENDENTED WHERE exists(SELECT ID FROM
EMPLOYEEWHERE EMPLOYEE.ID
=DEPENDENTED.EmpID and DEPENDENTED .Gender
='Female')
You can use the EXISTS operator with the group by as wel as
order by clause to determine whether data exists in a list of
values.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Example: SELECT dnum,COUNT (*)'Number of employee who

has dependent' FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE salary<3000 and
exists (SELECT EmpID FROM DEPENDENTED
WHERE EMPLOYEE.ID =DEPENDENTED.EmpIDgroup by
EmpID)group by Dnum order by Dnum
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Example: SELECT dnum ,count(*)'number of employee' FROM

EMPLOYEE WHERE exists (SELECT dname FROM
DEPARTEMENT WHERE EMPLOYEE.Dnum
=DEPARTEMENT.Dnumber)group by Dnum having
COUNT(*)>2
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Correlated subqueries
• In a SQL database query, a correlated sub-query (also known as a
synchronized subquery) is a sub-query (a query nested inside
another query) that uses values from the outer query in its WHERE
clause.
- Correlated subquery is one that is executed after the outer query is
executed. So correlated subqueries take an approach opposite to that
of the normal subqueries.
- In a correlated subquery, the inner query uses information from the
outer query and executes once for every row in the outer query.
- A practical use of a correlated subquery is to transfer data from one
table to another.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Syntax for correlated subquery:

select column_list from table_name a where search_condition
(select column_list from table_name b where
a.column_name_a=b.column_name_b)
Example: find out the name of all EMPLOYEES who has less or
equal to two dependent using correlated subquery.
select fname from EMPLOYEE a where 2<=(select COUNT(*)
from DEPENDENTED b
where b.EmpID=a.ID )
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

SQL: ORDER BY Clause

• The SQL ORDER BY clause allows you to sort the records in
your result set. The SQL ORDER BY clause can only be used
in SQL SELECT statements.
• The syntax for the SQL ORDER BY clause is:
• SELECT columnsFROM tablesWHERE predicatesORDER
BY column ASC/DESC; The SQL ORDER BY clause sorts
the result set based on the columns specified. If the ASC or
DESC value is omitted, it is sorted by ASC.
• ASC indicates ascending order. (default)
• DESC indicates descending order.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Syntax for using SQL ORDER BY clause to sort data is:

• SELECT column-list
FROM table_name [WHERE condition]
[ORDER BY column1 [, column2, .. columnN] [DESC]];
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

• database table "employee";

id name dept age salary location
100 Ramesh Electrical 24 25000 Bangalore
101 Hrithik Electronics 28 35000 Bangalore

102 Harsha Aeronautics 28 35000 Mysore

103 Soumya Electronics 22 20000 Bangalore

104 Priya InfoTech 25 30000 Mangalore
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

For Example: If you want to sort the employee table by salary of

the employee, the sql query would be.
SELECT name, salary FROM employee ORDER BY salary;
• The SQL ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in
ascending or descending order, based on one or more columns.
Some database sorts query results in ascending order by
default.
 Use Advanced Structured Query Language

Syntax:
• The basic syntax of ORDER BY clause is as follows:
• SELECT column-list FROM table_name [WHERE condition]
[ORDER BY column1, column2, .. columnN] [ASC | DESC];
• You can use more than one column in the ORDER BY clause.
Make sure whatever column you are using to sort, that column
should be in column-list.
• Note : SQL ORDER BY clause always come at the end of a
SELECT statement.
•END