Earth and Beyond

Lesson 4
• Introduction

Humans have long gazed toward the heavens, searching

to put meaning and order to the universe around them.
Although the movement of constellations — patterns
imprinted on the night sky — were the easiest to track,
other celestial events such as eclipses and the motion of
planets were also charted and predicted.
The term celestial body is as expansive as the entire universe, both
known and unknown. By definition a celestial body is any natural
body outside of the Earth’s atmosphere. Easy examples are the
Moon, Sun, and the other planets of our solar system.
But those are very limited examples. 
Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects (such as
stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that
originate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the cosmic
background radiation).
Cosmology is a branch of astronomy that involves the origin
and evolution of the universe, from the Big Bang to today
and on into the future. According to NASA, the definition of
cosmology is "the scientific study of the large scale
properties of the universe as a whole."
The universe is all existing matter and space considered as a
whole; the cosmos. The universe is believed to be at least 10
billion light years in diameter and contains a vast number of
galaxies; it has been expanding since its creation in the Big
Bang about 13 billion years ago.
A galaxy is a huge collection of gas, dust, and billions of stars
and their solar systems. A galaxy is held together by gravity.
Our galaxy, the Milky Way, also has a supermassive black
hole in the middle.
Shining so brightly that they eclipse the ancient galaxies that
contain them, quasars are distant objects powered by black
holes a billion times as massive as our sun. These powerful
dynamos have fascinated astronomers since their discovery
half a century ago.
 They are what is known as the “lighthouses” of the universe –
rotating neutron stars that emit a focused beam of electromagnetic
radiation that is only visible if you’re standing in it’s path. Known as
pulsars, these stellar relics get their name because of the way their
emissions appear to be “pulsating” out into space.
A black hole is a place in space where gravity pulls so much that even light can
not get out. The gravity is so strong because matter has been squeezed into a
tiny space. This can happen when a star is dying. Because no light can get out,
people can't see black holes. They are invisible. Space telescopes with special
tools can help find black holes. The special tools can see how stars that are
very close to black holes act differently than other stars.
 4.1 Studying Celestial Bodies

Historically, astronomy has focused on observations of heavenly

bodies. It is a close cousin to astrophysics. Briefly put,
astrophysics involves the study of the physics of astronomy and
concentrates on the behavior, properties and motion of objects
out there. However, modern astronomy includes many elements
of the motions and characteristics of these bodies, and the two
terms are often used interchangeably today.
Branches of Astronomy

1. Optical astronomy

Visible-light astronomy encompasses a wide variety of observations

via telescopes that are sensitive in the range visible light (optical
telescopes). Visible-light astronomy is part of optical astronomy, and
differs from astronomies based on invisible types of light in
the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, such as radio
waves, infrared waves, ultraviolet waves, X-ray waves and gamma-
ray waves. Visible light ranges from 380 to
750 nanometers in wavelength.
Visible-light astronomy has existed as long as people have been looking up at
the night sky, although it has since improved in its observational capabilities
since the invention of the telescope, which is commonly credited to Hans
Lippershey, a German-Dutch spectacle-maker, although Galileo played a large
role in the development and creation of telescopes. Visible-light astronomy
continues to get better in the modern day, with projects such as the James
Webb Telescope being projected for launch in the next few years.
2. Radio Astronomy

Radio astronomy is a subfield of astronomy that studies celestial objects

at radio frequencies. The first detection of radio waves from an
astronomical object was in 1932, when Karl Jansky at Bell Telephone
Laboratories observed radiation coming from the Milky Way. Subsequent
observations have identified a number of different sources of radio
emission. These include stars and galaxies, as well as entirely new classes of
objects, such as radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars, and masers.
The discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation,
regarded as evidence for the Big Bang theory, was made through
radio astronomy. Radio astronomy is conducted using large radio
antennas referred to as radio telescopes, that are either used
singularly, or with multiple linked telescopes utilizing the techniques
of radio interferometry and aperture synthesis.
3. Infrared astronomy
Infrared astronomy is the branch of astronomy and astrophysics that studies 
astronomical objects visible in infrared (IR) radiation. The wavelength of infrared light
ranges from 0.75 to 300 micrometers. Infrared falls in between visible radiation, which
ranges from 380 to 750 nanometers, and submillimeter waves.
Infrared astronomy began in the 1830s, a few decades after the discovery of infrared
light by William Herschel in 1800. Early progress was limited, and it was not until the
early 20th century that conclusive detections of astronomical objects other than the 
Sun and Moon were made in infrared light. After a number of discoveries were made
in the 1950s and 1960s in radio astronomy, astronomers realized the information
available outside the visible wavelength range, and modern infrared astronomy was
established.
Infrared and optical astronomy are often practiced using the same telescopes, as the
same mirrors or lenses are usually effective over a wavelength range that includes both
visible and infrared light. Both fields also use solid state detectors, though the specific
type of solid state detectors used are different. Infrared light is absorbed at many
wavelengths by water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere, so most infrared telescopes are