UNIT: TWO

People, Society and Culture in

Nepal
 Demography: Demographic Composition
of People:
• Demography is the study of the size and composition of human populations
as well as the causes and consequences of changes in these factors( Tischler,
2011).
• Demography is the study of human population ( Macionis, 2018).
• Demography (from Greek, meaning “description of people”) that analyzes
the size and composition of a population and studies how and why people
move from place to place.
• The term demography is made up of two words: “Demos”, which means
“population”, and “-graphy”, which means “describe.”
• Demographers not only collect statistics but also raise important questions
about the effects of population growth and suggest how it might be
controlled.
• Demography is influenced by three major factors: fertility, mortality, and
migration.
• According to process Poston & Bouvier (2010) “Demography is destiny”.
• Demography is the social science that studies :
1) the size, composition, and distribution of the human population of a given
area at a specific point in time;
2) changes in population size and composition;
3) the components of these changes (fertility, mortality, and migration);
4) the factors that affect these components; and
5) the consequences of changes in population size, composition, and distribution,
or in the components themselves.
Demography may be defined as the scientific study of the size, composition, and
distribution of human populations and their changes resulting from fertility,
mortality, and migration.
Demography is concerned with how large (or small) populations are; how
populations are composed according to age, sex, race, marital status, and
other characteristics; and how populations are distributed in physical space
(e.g., how urban and rural they are) (Bogue, 1969).
Demography is also interested in the changes over time in the size, composition,
and distribution of human populations, and how these result from the
processes of fertility, mortality, and migration.
 The Sources of Demographic Information

1. NATIONAL CENSUSES:
A national census is “the total process of collecting, compiling, and publishing
demographic, economic, and social data pertaining, at a specified time . . . , to
all persons in a country or delimited territory” (United Nations, 1958: 3).
2. REGISTRATION SYSTEMS:
Strictly speaking, as Lars Ostby (2003: 763) has noted, a population register is a
list (i.e., a register) of persons that includes the name, address, date of birth,
and a personal identification number
3. SURVEYS:
Demographers rely on a third source of demographic data, sample surveys, often
because censuses and registration systems do not contain the extensive kinds
of information needed to address some of the more critical demographic
questions. E.g. Demographic and Health Surveys
Population Growth Fertility, mortality, and migration all affect the size of
a society’s population
 1. Fertility:
• Fertility is the study of human population begins with how many people are
born( Tischler, 1011).
• Fertility refers to the actual production of children, which in the strictest sense is
a biological process (Poston & Bouvier, 2010).
• Fertility is the incidence of childbearing in a country’s population. During her
childbearing years, from the onset of menstruation (typically in the early teens)
to menopause (usually in the late forties), a woman is capable of bearing more
than twenty children. But fecundity, or maximum possible childbearing, is
sharply reduced by cultural norms, finances, and personal choice.
• Fertility refers to the actual number of births in a given population ( Macionis,
2018).
• For most countries, population growth depends on the natural increase
resulting from more births than deaths. This number is a far cry from real life,
though, where health, culture, and other factors limit childbearing. Even in
countries with high birthrates, the average woman rarely has more than seven
children (Population Reference Bureau, 2008).
There are three main fertility concepts.:

1. Fertility is the actual production of male and female births and refers to
real behavior.
2. Reproduction is also of Fertility actual production, but refers to the
production of only female births (there is no demographic term to refer to
the production of only male births).
3. Fecundity refers to the potential or the biological capacity of producing
live births.
• Fecundity is the physiological ability to have children. Most women
between the ages of 15 and 45 are capable of bearing children. During this
time, a woman potentially could have up to 30 children; however, the
realistic maximum number of children a woman can have is about 15.
• Fecundity, that is, the ability to produce children, varies by sex; specifically,
the childbearing years of females are, for the most part, between the ages
of 15 and 49, and for males they are generally between the ages of 15 and
79 (Poston, 2005).
 MEASUREMENT OF FERTILITY:
• Demographers describe fertility using the crude birth rate, the number of live births in
a given year for every 1,000 people in a population.
1. The crude birth rate (CBR) is the first measure of fertility we consider. It is a cross-
sectional (i.e., period) measure and refers to the number of births occurring in a
population in a year per 1,000 persons. It is calculated as follows:
CBR = number of births /midyear population ∗ 1,000
2. The general fertility rate (GFR) is another cross-sectional measure of fertility. It is
superior to the CBR because it restricts the denominator to women of childbearing
ages. The GFR is calculated as follows:
GFR = births /midyear population f,15−49 ∗ 1,000
3. The age-specific fertility rate (ASFR) reflects exactly what its name indicates: It
focuses on births to women according to their age. ASFRs are usually calculated for
women in each of the seven 5-year age groups of 15– 19, 20–24, 25–29, 30–34, 35–
39, 40–44, and 45–49.
ASFR= Total birth given by certain age group/ Population of that very group *
1,000
4. Total Fertility Rate (TFR): TFR is the wholesome of age specific fertility rate.
TFR= ASFR/ 1000 * 5 ( Age interval)
 Factor affecting : Fertility

1. Biological Factors; ( Age, Health status, Heredity,

age at marriage etc.).
2. Psychological Factors: ( Knowledge, perception,
thinking, awareness etc. )
3. Socio-cultural Factors; ( Social status, social norms
and value, beliefs, tradition etc. )
4. Economic Factors: ( Income, occupation,
employment, property, division of labor etc. ).
 2. Mortality:

• Population size also reflects mortality, the incidence of death in a

country’s population.
• To measure mortality, demographers use the crude death rate,
the number of deaths in a given year for every 1,000 people in a
population.).
• Mortality People die eventually, but in some countries, they die
much earlier than in others.
• Mortality is the frequency of deaths in a population
• Mortality is reflected in people’s life expectancy, the average
number of years a person born in a particular year can expect to
live.
• Demographers also look at age-specific death rates.
For example, one measure used is the infant
mortality rate, which measures the number of
children who die within the first year of life per 1,000
live births.
• Maternal mortality is another factor that varies widely
throughout the world. There are large differences in the risk of
dying from pregnancy-related causes in developed vs.
developing countries. A woman in sub-Saharan Africa has a
lifetime chance of maternal death of 1 in 22; in Asia, it is 1 in
90; and in Europe, 1 in 9,400 (Population Reference Bureau,
2008).
 Factors affecting Mortality:

1. Biological Factors: ( Heredity, Ageing, Immunity

power etc.)
2. Socio-economic Factors: ( Socio-cultural norms and
values, Beliefs, Health Services, The level of
Nutrition, health education etc.).
3. Environmental Factors: ( Natural calamities: Flood,
Landslide, Earthquake, Famine etc.).
 Measures of Mortality:
1. Crude death rate ( CDR): Number of deaths in a year per
thousand mid year population of that year.
CDR= Total death of a year/ Mid year population * 1000
2. Age specific death rate ( ASDR): Number of death in a given
age group per thousand mid year population of that age.
ASDR= Death in a particular age group/ Population of that age group * 1000
3. Infant Mortality Rate ( IMR): N umber of death under one year of
age in a given year per thousand population.
IMR= Death of babies below one year/ Total Birth * 1000
4. Maternal mortality rate(MMR):
• Counts deaths in women due to pregnancy or child birth,
divides by number of live births in same time period
MMR= Number of maternal deaths / Number of live births) X 100,000
 3. Migration:
• There are three components of population change. They are
mortality, fertility and migration
• Population size is also affected by migration, the movement of
people into and out of a specified territory.
• Migration is the movement of populations from one geographical
area to another(( Macionis, 2018).
• Migration refers to the movement of people from one location to
another. Although migration occurs both within and between
countries
• Migration is the movement of people from one location to
another and widely associated with change of permanent place of
residence.
• The net migration rate is the difference between the inmigration
rate and the outmigration rate.
• Migration in geography usually refers to the movement of humans
from one place to another. It occurs when the perceived interaction of
Push and Pull factors overcome the friction of moving.
Factors of Migration:
Migration is a global phenomenon caused not only by economic
factors, but also by social, political, cultural, environmental,
health, education and transportation factors
1. Push factors ( Place of Origin): elements of the origin that are
perceived negatively leading to a desire to leave.
• Push factors are events and conditions that compel an individual to
move from a location.(economic factors, demographic factors,
socio-cultural factors, political factors and miscellaneous factors.)
2. Pull factors ( Place of Destination) are conditions that influence
migrants to move to a particular location
• Pull factors: elements of the destination that are perceived positively
leading to place-attraction.(economic factors, demographic factors,
socio-cultural factors, political factors and miscellaneous factors.)
 TYPES OF MIGRATION:

1. On the basis of Nature:

- Seasonal Migration
- Permanent Migration
- Temporary Migration
2. On the basis of Region:
- Rural-Urban
- Urban- Rural
- Rural-rural
- Internal Migration
- International Migration
1. Internal migration is the change of permanent residence within a country,
involving a geographical move that crosses a political boundary, usually a county
or county-type geographical unit.
- Internal migration is the movement of people from one place to other place in
a given country. International migration is the movement of people from one
country to another in order to take up employment of establish residence or to
increase in living standard
- sociologists use the term internal migration for movement within a nation’s
boundary lines.
a. In-migration refers to the residential migration of persons to an area of destination;
b. out-migration refers to the migration of persons from an area of origin.
• The area of origin is the area or community where the migration began, and the
area of destination is the area or community where the migration ended.
• Return migration is the migration of persons back to their area of origin at some
time after their initial out-migration.
• Net migration refers to the migration balance of an area, consisting of the number
of in-migrants minus the number of out-migrants; the net balance may be positive
(representing a net population gain to the area) or negative (representing a net
loss) or, conceivably, zero (Poston, Luo, and Zhang, 2006).
2. International migration is migration that occurs between countries. Its dynamics
differ significantly from those of internal migration, that is, migration within the
geographical boundaries of a single country, the subject of the last chapter. The
concepts and theories of international migration are also somewhat different from
those of internal migration
- Internal migration is the movement of people from one place to other place
in a given country.
- International migration is the movement of people from one country to
another in order to take up employment of establish residence or to increase in
living standard
• The first distinction is between immigration and emigration:
a. Immigration refers to the migration of people into a new country for the purpose of
establishing permanent residence; an immigrant is a person who enters a new
country of permanent residence and crosses an international boundary in doing so.
These concepts are analogous in the study of internal migration to in-migration and
in-migrant.
b. Emigration refers to the permanent departure of people from a country; an
emigrant is one who migrates away from a country with the intention of establishing
a permanent residence elsewhere.
The analogous internal migration concepts are out-migration and out-migrant.
• Migration is the movement of populations from one
geographical area to another. We call it emigration when a
population leaves an area and immigration when a
population enters an area.
• All migrations, therefore, are both emigrations and
immigrations. Of the three components of population change
—fertility, mortality, and migration—migration historically
exerts the least impact on population growth or decline.
 Measures of Migration:
1. In- Migration Rate:
IMR= Number of immigrants/ Total mid year population* 100
2. Out-Migration Rate:
OMR= Number of emigrants/ Total mid year population* 1000
3. Net- Migration Rate:
NMR= Number of immigrants- Number of emigrants/ Total mid
year population* 100
4. Gross Migration Rate:
GMR= Number of immigrants+ Numbers of emigrants / Total mid
year population* 1000
 Migration and Social Mobility:
• Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups in social
positions over time.
• Most commonly, social mobility refers to the change in wealth and social
status of individuals or families.
• Social mobility typically refers to vertical mobility, movement of
individuals or groups up or down from one socio-economic level to
another, often by changing jobs or marriage. (Upward and Downward
Vertical Mobility).
• Nonetheless, social mobility can also refer to horizontal mobility,
movement from one position to another within the same social level, as
when someone changes between two equally prestigious occupations.
• intergenerational mobility is social movement occurring from one
generation to the next, whereas intragenerational mobility is social
movement occurring over the course of one’s lifetime.
 Migration Trends in Nepal:

• Migration is one of such important demographic component that may

change the population’s composition with respect to age, sex, race,
ethnicity, religion, income, education and other socio-economic
characteristics.
• Internal migration is the movement of people within national boundaries.
This study exhibits that the internal migration in Nepal occurs from
Mountain and Hill to Terai and from rural to urban areas
- Rural to Urban
- Rural to Rural
- Urban to Rural
- Urban to Urban
- Hills/ mountain to Terai.
• Migration is one of the most important trend and
process in Nepal. Several studies have been conducted
in this field by different research institutions and
scholars. But most of these are concerned with internal
Hill to Terai and rural to urban types of migration.

• There are no empirical records on emigration till 1951.

The 1952/54 census of Nepal was the first to report the
volume of emigration from Nepal. According to this
census altogether 1,98, 120 Nepalese were absent from
home for more than six months prior to census taking.
• 2078 BS: 21,69,478.
 Impact of migration:
1. Demographic Impact: ( Population Increase/
Decrease).
2. Economic Impact: ( Income, Occupation, Employment,
Remittance etc.)
3. Social Impact: (Social status, Social Relationship,
Networking, Education, Health etc.)
4. Political Impact: ( Power, Leadership, Decision making,
Authority etc.)
5. Cultural Impact: ( Religion, Norms and value, Beliefs,
Tradition, Knowledge etc.)
 Opportunities and Challenges of Migration:

• People are moving from one place to another since ancient period,
which is a continuous international phenomenon resulted due to
complex mechanism, involving social, economic, psychological,
political, institutional and other determinants (Singh, 1998).
• Migration is a form of geographical or spatial mobility, which
involves a change of usual residence of a person between clearly
defined geographical units. A person who crosses the boundary of
own country or places of country is called an out-migrant.
• Emigration refers to movement out of a particular territory in
connection with the international migration (Bhende and
Karnitkar, 1998)
• Opportunities of Migration:
1. Job employment/ Occupation/ Division of labors,
Level of income, labor markets, poverty alleviation etc.
2. Education ( Quality of education), Health, Quality of
food etc.
3. Remittance / Economic stability( impact of this
financial flow on the development and poverty
reduction ).
4. Social Mobility
5. Independency, decision making, power exercise,
leadership etc.
6. Cultural aspect ( Knowledge, Modern technology,
innovation, discovery, diffusion).
Challenges of Migration:

• Brain Drain / Skilled manpower.

• Split the family/ broken family ( Divorce and
remarriage).
• Human Trafficking/ Violence.
• Urbanization/ High population density.
• Environment/ Environmental degradation.
• Conflict
 Size and Growth rate of population in Nepal:
• Population growth is the change in a population over time, and can be
quantified as the change in the number of individuals. Human population
is multidisciplinary in nature, which provides enlightening insights into
changes in population structure and behavior, pinpointing causal
relationships and refining explanations (Aryal, 2008).
• The demographic changes indicate not only the changes in population size
but also the changes in its composition, distribution and the related
development process (Aryal, 2013).
• Population of Nepal as of the census (2078 BS.) stands at 2,91,92,480. The
increment of population during the last decade is recorded as 2,697,976
with an annual average growth rate of 0.935 percent. Similarly, Total
number of households in the country is 56,43,945 with 4.32 family
members.
Male population= 1,42,91,311
Female population= 1, 49,01,169
• Population Density:
Population density (average number of population per square
kilometer) at the national level is 180 compared to 157 in
2001. The highest population density is found in Kathmandu
district (4,416 person per square km) and lowest (3 person per
square km) in Manang district.
Population Density (2078): 198.
High Population ( District): Kathmandu: 20,17,000
Low Population (District): Mange: 5,645
• Sex Ratio:
Sex ratio (number of males per 100 females) at the national level
has decreased from 99.8 in 2001 to 91.6 in 2011. In abstract
number, there are 796,422 more females than males in the
country. Sex ratio is highest (127) in Manang district and
lowest (76) in Gulmi district.
• Average Household Size:
Average household size at the national level has
decreased from 5.44 in 2001 to 4.88 in the current
census 2011. The household size is recorded highest
(6.44) in Rautahat district and lowest (3.92) in Kaski.
Household Size (2078 BS): 4.32

Household Head:
Female-headed households in the country has increased
by about 11 point percent from 14.87% in 2001 to
25.73% in 2011
• Mother Tongue:
There are 123 languages spoken as mother tongue
reported in census 2011.
Nepali 44.6 percent (11,826,953)
Maithili (11.7% 3,092,530),
Bhojpuri (5.98%; 1,584,958),
Tharu (5.77%; 1,529,875),
Tamang (5.11%; 1,353,311),
Newar (3.2%; 846,557),
Bajjika (2.99%; 793,418),
Magar (2.98%; 788,530),
Doteli (2.97%; 787,827),
Urdu (2.61%; 691,546)
• Religion:
There are ten types of religion categories reported
in the census.
Hindu (81.3 21,551,492)
Buddhism (9%; 2,396,099),
Islam (4.4%; 1,162,370), ,
Kirat (3.1%; 807,169),
Christianity (1.4%; 375,699),
Prakriti (0.5%; 121,982),
Bon (13,006),
Jainism (3,214),
Bahai (1,283)
Sikhism (609)
• Literacy Rate:
Overall literacy rate (for population aged 5 years and
above) has increased from 54.1 percent in 2001 to
65.9 percent in 2011. Male literacy rate is 75.1%
compared to female literacy rate of 57.4%. The
highest literacy rate is reported in Kathmandu district
(86.3 %) and lowest in Humla (47.8%)
• Caste/Ethnicity:
There are 126 caste/ethnic groups reported in the census 2011. -
Chhetri 16.6% (4,398,053)
Brahman-Hill (12.2% ; 3,226,903),
Magar (7.1% ; 1,887,733),
Tharu (6.6% ; 1,737,470),
Tamang (5.8% ; 1,539,830),
Newar (5% ; 1,321,933),
Kami (4.8% ; 1,258,554),
Musalman (4.4% ; 1,164,255),
Yadav (4% ; 1,054,458)
Rai (2.3% ; 620,004).
 Religion:
• Religion is a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on
recognizing the sacred. It is a major social institution based on setting the
sacred apart from the profane.
• Religion is a matter of belief. It is a grounded in faith rather than scientific
evidence, and people express their religious beliefs through various rituals.
• Religion is a matter of faith, belief based on conviction rather than on
scientific evidence (( Macionis, 2018).
• Its role in promoting social solidarity, as Durkheim has pointed out, and its
need in providing inner individual peace
• The French sociologist Emile Durkheim in his book “,The Elementary Forms
Of the Religious Life 1912”.defines religion as a “ Unified system of beliefs
and practices relatives to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and
forbidden”
• Religiosity :
Religiosity is the importance of religion in a person’s life. However, exactly how
religious we are depends on how we operationalize this concept.
• Emile Durkheim :( Functional Role of Religion)
• Karl Marx: ( Religion as a source of Inequality
and Conflict: Opium).
• Max Weber: ( Religion and Rise of Capitalism).
• Emile Durkheim identified three major functions of religion that
contribute to the operation of society:
1. Social cohesion.
Religion unites people through shared symbolism, values, and norms.
Religious thought and ritual establish rules of fair play, organizing our
social life.
2. Social control.
Every society uses religious ideas to promote conformity. By defining God as
a “judge,” many religions encourage people to obey cultural norms.
Religion can also be used to back up the power of political systems. Even
today, our leaders ask for God’s blessing, implying that their efforts are
right and just.
3. Providing meaning and purpose.
Religious belief offers the comforting sense that our brief lives serve some
greater purpose. Strengthened by such beliefs, people are less likely to
despair in the face of change or even tragedy. For this reason, we mark
major life course transitions—including birth, marriage, and death—with
religious observances.
• Religion in Preindustrial Societies :
Early hunters and gatherers practiced animism (from a
Latin word meaning “breath of life”), the belief that
elements of the natural world are conscious life
forms that affect humanity. Animists view forests,
oceans, mountains, and even the wind as spiritual
forces
• Religion in Industrial Societies:
• monotheism, belief in a single divine power.
• polytheism, belief in many gods.
 Basic Features:

1. Belief in supernatural power.

2. Concept of sacredness.
3. Emotional feelings.
4. Religion is cultural universal.
5. Religion is means of social control.
6. Religion is a factor of generating conflict
between different religious groups and societies.
7. Religion is a means of providing social support.
Functions of Religion:
1. Religion provides religious experience.
2. Religion provides peace of mind.
3. Religion promotes social solidarity.
4. Religion conserves the value of life.
5. Religion-As an agent of social control.
6. Priestly function of religion.
7. Religion promotes welfare.
8. Religion provides recreation.
9. Religion explains individual suffering and helps to
integrate personality.
10. Religion enhances self importance.
Dysfunctions of Religion:
1. Religion inhibits protests and impedes social change.
2. Hampers the adaptation of society to changed
condition.
3. Religion increases conflict and makes the evolution
of realistic solutions more difficult.
4. Impedes the development of new identities.
5. Conservatives and retards progress.
6. Promotes evil practices.
7. Religion Undermine human potentiality.
8. Religion retards scientific achievements
Religion in Nepal:
• Religious structure of Nepal has a unique place in the world.
• Nepal is a multi religious country.
• Nepal is a multiethnic, multi-religious and multilingual country.
• According to the census 2011, there are 10 types religious groups exist in Nepal.
• Before 2063 B.S.: Nepal was a Hindus country.
• After 2063 Interim-constitution, Nepal is a secular country.
• A secular state is a state or country which is officially neutral in matters of
religion, neither supporting nor opposing any particular religious beliefs or
practices (Farooq, 2013).
 According to census ( 2011):
• Hinduism: 81.3%
• Buddhism: 9.0%
• Islam: 4.4%
• Kiratism: 3.0%
• Christianity: 1.4%
• Sikhism: 0.2%
• Jainism: 0.1%
• Others : o.6%
• Religion:
1. Hinduism
2. Buddhism
3. Islam
4. Kirat
5. Christianity
 Hinduism:
• Hinduism is the oldest of all the world religions, originating in the Indus River
valley about 4,500 years ago. Today, there are about 870 million Hindus, which
is almost 14 percent of the world’s people (( Macionis, 2018).
• Hinduism is an important part of our country’s cultural diversity. Hinduism
differs from most other religions in that it is not linked to the life of any single
person. In addition, Hinduism envisions God as a universal moral force rather
than a specific entity.
• Hinduism is a religion with various Gods and Goddesses. According to
Hinduism, three Gods rule the world. Brahma: the creator; Vishnu: the
preserver and Shiva ( Maheshwor): the destroyer. Lord Vishnu did his job of
preserving the world by incarnating himself in different forms at times of crisis .
• Major Festivals: Dashain, Tihar, Maha Shivaratri, Krishna Janmashtami etc.
• Hindus see God as a universal moral force rather than a specific being and believe
in the principles of dharma (moral responsibilities) and karma (the spiritual
progress of the human soul)

• Hindu beliefs and practices vary widely, but all Hindus believe that they have moral
responsibilities, called dharma. Dharma, for example, calls people to observe the traditional
caste system. According to Hinduism, all humans are born with certain duties and obligations.
Hindu scriptures teach that when a person fulfills his or her duties, all will benefit and when
all people submit to their individual dharma, the society as a whole flourishes. Dharma has
been described in a number of ways: right conduct, righteous living, and moral law
• Another Hindu principle, karma, involves a belief in the spiritual progress of the human soul.
To a Hindu, each action has spiritual consequences, and proper living results in moral
development. Most Hindus share a belief in the concept of karma, the effect of past actions
on present circumstances. Traditionally, Hindus believe in reincarnation -- the cycle of life,
death and rebirth -- and karma is connected to this belief.
• Moksha means liberation or the soul’s release from the cycle of death and rebirth. It occurs
when the soul unites with Brahman by realizing its true nature. Unlike Christianity and Islam,
Hinduism recognizes no ultimate judgment at the hands of a supreme god. But in the ongoing
cycle of rebirth, it may be said that people get what they deserve. For those who reach
moksha, the state of spiritual perfection, the soul has no further need to be reborn.
• Writings originally meant for the betterment of life of the common people took
up the form of holy books such as the Vedas, Upanishads and Puranas which
existed to enlighten practitioners.
• The four Vedas -- the Rig Veda, the Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva
Veda -- are the authentic texts of Hinduism and are comprised of hymns,
incantations, rituals and the importance of practicing them in daily life.
• The concept of God in Hinduism is largely empathic with natural powers such
as Agni (fire),Vayu (wind) and Varuna (water).
• The concept of “Trimurti” or “Three-forms” (comprising of the Gods
Brahma,Vishnu and Shiva) is related to the three stages of life: birth, life and
death. Hinduism, therefore, is a philosophical approach to life as much as it is
a religious concept.
• There are two primary symbols associated with Hinduism, the om and the
swastika. The word means “Good Fortune” or being happy. In sanskrit “ Good
Luck”.
• Hindu worship, which is known as “Puja” tapically takes place in the Mandir
(Temple).
• Hinduism has many sects, and is sometimes divided into the
following:
1. Shaivism (followers of Shiva: Oldest set of Hindu,
Pashupatinath, Guheshwori etc.)
2. Vaishnavism (followers of Vishnu: Changunarayan)
3. Shaktism (followers of Devi: Parbati, Bhawani, Mahalaxmi,
Durga etc.)
2. Buddhism:
- Siddhartha Gautama was born to a high-caste family in Nepal in 563 B.C.
( Tilaurakot, Kapilvastu. Son Of Suddhodhan and Mayadevi Even as a
young man, he was deeply spiritual. At the age of twenty-nine, he
experienced a personal transformation, which led him to years of travel
and meditation.
- By the end of this journey, he achieved what Buddhists describe as bodhi,
or enlightenment. By gaining an understanding of the essence of life,
Gautama became the Buddha. Buddhists believe that much of life in this
world involves suffering.
- enlightenment and peace
- Swoyambhunath Chaitya, Chabahil Chaitya ( Brishadeva: Lichchhavi
Period, Amshuvarma)
- Festivals: Buddha’s Birth, Enlightenment, and Death.
• The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path The central teachings of all
schools of Buddhism are based on the Four Noble Truths:
The Buddha's Four Noble Truths explore human suffering.
1. Dukkha: Suffering exists: Life is suffering. Suffering is real and
almost universal. Suffering has many causes: loss, sickness, pain,
failure, and the impermanence of pleasure.
2. Samudaya: There is a cause of suffering. Suffering is due to
attachment. It is the desire to have and control things. It can
take many forms: craving of sensual pleasures; the desire for
fame; the desire to avoid unpleasant sensations, like fear, anger
or jealousy.
3. Nirodha: There is an end to suffering. Attachment can be
overcome. Suffering ceases with the final liberation of Nirvana
(Nibbana). The mind experiences complete freedom, liberation
and non-attachment. It lets go of any desire or craving.
4. Magga: In order to end suffering, you must follow the Eightfold
Path.
1. Right Understanding: knowledge that the Four Noble Truths lead to
overcoming dukkha.
2. Right Thought: a genuine wish to break free from desire
3. Right Speech: controlling one’s speech so that it does not harm
others. Buddhists will avoid lying or gossip
4. Right Action: avoiding actions that are harmful to oneself or any
other living creature
5. Right Livelihood: earning a living in a way that does not cause harm
or suffering to others. This involves avoiding professions that
create or distribute weapons, that promote intoxication, or that
involve the slaughter of animals
6. Right Effort: paying attention continually to one’s lifestyle
7. Right Mindfulness: constant awareness about the effects of one’s
actions so as to avoid causing harm
8. Right Concentration: attaining serenity by cultivating the mind
through meditation
• Schools of Buddhism The differences between the schools of Buddhism rest on the
emphasis they place on particular aspects of the teachings and the interpretation of
rules governing the conduct of the ‘sangha’ (Buddhist spiritual community). Chaplaincy
Spirituality
1. Theravada Buddhism: the Theravada School adheres strictly to the original
teachings of Buddha as contained in the Pali canon (scripture) and emphasizes the
goal of personal salvation for the individual follower. The importance of the
community of monks is also characteristic of the Theravada tradition. Theravada
countries include Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka, Cambodia and Laos etc.
2. Mahayana Buddhism: the Mahayana School has less emphasis on the monastic
code of conduct, and so is less formally strict. The emphasis is on the importance of
becoming a Buddha for the salvation of living beings. Zen Buddhism, a branch of
Mahayana Buddhism, strongly emphasizes the practice of meditation. Mahayana
countries include China, Japan, Vietnam and Korea.
3. Vajrayana Buddhism: differs from the Mahayana School in that it places emphasis
on developing and accepting a personal guru (teacher). Meditation and special
sayings known as ‘mantras’ are also characteristics of the Vajrayana tradition.
Vajrayana countries include Tibet, Mongolia and Nepal etc.
 3. Islam:
•Islam is the second largest religion in world after Christianity.
•A majority of people in the Middle East are Muslims, so we tend to associate Islam with
Arabs in that region of the world. But most of the world’s Muslims live elsewhere: Global
Map 19–2 shows that most people in northern Africa and Indonesia are Muslims. In addition,
large concentrations of Muslims are found in western Asia in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh,
and the southern republics of the former Soviet Union. Because Muslims have a higher birth
rate than followers of any other major religion, it is possible that Islam could become the
world’s dominant religion by the end of this century( Macionis, 2018).
•Islam teaches that Allah is the only God and that Muhammad is his messenger
•Islam is the word of God as revealed to Muhammad, who was born in the city of Mecca (in
what is now Saudi Arabia) about the year 570. To Muslims, Muhammad is a prophet, not a
divine being as Jesus is to Christians.
•The worshipping place of this religion is called ‘Masjid’ and their holy book is ‘Quran’. They say ‘allah’
to god and believe that God is one and incomparable and the purpose of existence is to worship God.
•The text of the Qur’an (Koran), which is sacred to Muslims, is the word of Allah (Arabic for
“God”) as transmitted through Muhammad, Allah’s messenger. In Arabic, the word islam
means both “submission” and “peace,” and the Qur’an urges submission to Allah as the path
to inner peace.
•Muslims express this personal devotion in a ritual of prayers five times each day
• After the death of Muhammad, Islam spread
rapidly. Although divisions arose among Muslims,
all accept the Five Pillars of Islam:
(1) recognizing Allah as the one, true God and Muhammad as God’s
messenger;
(2) ritual prayer;
(3) giving alms to the poor;
(4) fasting during the month of Ramadan; and
(5) making a pilgrimage at least once in one’s life to the Sacred
House of Allah in Mecca (Weeks, 1988; ElAttar, 1991)
- Eid al- Adha: Celebrate the prophet Abraham’s willingness to
sacrifice his son for Allah.
- Eid al-fitr: Marks the end of Ramdan-the islamic holy month of
fasting.
• Sunni Muslims agree with many of the Prophet's
companions at the time of his death: that the new leader
should be elected from among those capable of the job.
For example, following Prophet Muhammad's death, his
close friend and adviser, Abu Bakr, became the first Caliph
(successor or deputy of the Prophet) of the Islamic nation.
• Shia Muslims believe that following the Prophet
Muhammad's death, leadership should have passed
directly to his cousin and son-in-law, Ali bin Abu Talib.
Throughout history, Shia Muslims have not recognized the
authority of elected Muslim leaders, choosing instead to
follow a line of Imams which they believe have been
appointed by the Prophet Muhammad or God Himself.
4. Christianity: (Jesus Christ, Bible , church)
• Christianity is the most widespread religion, with 2 billion followers, one-third of
the world’s people. Most Christians live in Europe or the Americas; more than 85
percent of the people in the United States and Canada identify with Christianity
(Macionis. 2012).

• Christianity is one example of monotheism, belief in a single divine power.. Yet

Christianity views the Supreme Being as a sacred Trinity: God the Creator; Jesus
Christ, Son of God and Redeemer; and the Holy Spirit, a Christian’s personal
experience of God’s presence.
• It is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teaching of Jesus of
Nazareth. Christianity teaches that Jesus is the Son of God and the Messiah
(the savior of humanity foretold in the Torah, the primary scriptural doctrine
of the Jewish faith). Christian scripture incorporates both the Torah (referred
to by Christians as the Old Testament) with the story of Jesus, his teachings,
and those of his contemporaneous disciples (the New Testament).
• These form the Bible, the central text of the Christian faith.
• The religious book is ‘Bible’ and the worshipping place is ‘Church’.
• Christianity took various forms, including the Roman Catholic
Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, based in
Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey). Toward the end of the
Middle Ages, the Protestant Reformation in Europe gave rise
to hundreds of new denominations.
• The main difference between catholic and Protestants is that
Catholics believe that the pope is the highest authority after
Jesus, who can connect them to the divine power. Whereas
Protestants do not believe in papal authority, they only
consider Jesus and his divine teachings in the bible to be true.
5. Kirat Religion:
• Nepal was known as Himwant Khand Karat Desh or Kirat Country in the ancient time.
• Kirat religion is another religion in Nepal. Kirat religion initially was a part of Hinduism
religion but now it is considered a separate religion.
- Falgunanda Linden.
• Kirat religion is one of its kind. They have their own rules and customs to follow.
Mundhum is the holy book in Kirat religion. It is a source of philosophy and culture of the
Kirat religion.
• Mundhum contains all sorts of principles the followers have to follow and also different
legends. The name of the book is made up of two words as in Mun and Dhum. Mun stands
for energy and dhum translates to moving. That’s is why the book translates to moving
energy. The book is considered immortal and Kiratis has a deep respect for the book.
• Kirat religion doesn’t believe in worshipping gods and goddesses but they believe in
worshipping trees and nature. They worship trees, hills, rivers and worship mother nature
as god. Actually mother nature is the one who feeds us so it is no wrong to say that
Mother Nature is god. That is the principle Kirati people follow. They also worship their
ancestors for all the works they have done and the contribution they made for protecting
their religion and custom.
• Major festivals of kirati people are Sakela/ Sakewa and Ubhauli/ Udhauli. Both of
these festivals is the gesture of thanking mother nature for all she gives to
human beings
• The Kirat people are animists who worship nature, their ancestors and the
universe. During Ubhauli, they worship nature for a good harvest. During
Udhauli, they worship their ancestors and deities to teach us civilisation.
• As Nepali litterateur Rajan Mukarung says, “Sakela is a cultural performance. It
represents the history, culture, civilisation, identity and philosophical life of the
Kirat indigenous people. It is performed in various skillis (steps). These sillis are
an imitation of the ancestors’ tasks.”
• Sakela is the biggest festival, Kirats of Nepal celebrate. Ubhauli and Udhauli are
the two main festivals of Sakela. Ubhauli means upward and Udhauli is
downward. 
• According to the Holy book of Kirat  'Mundhum', a year of 365 days is divided
into two phases Ubhauli (going up) and Udhauli (going down). The birds
migrates from one place from other in these period as well in old days people
used to move uphill and downhill during these seasons
• Sakela Ubhauli falls on the month of Baishak (April-May) and Sakela Udhauli falls
during then moth of Mangsir (October-November) of Bikram Sambat calendar.  
 Religious Harmony in Nepal:
• Religious harmony is very important to maintain peace and stability in a country like
Nepal where people are multi-religious. Failure to address religious harmony it could
take the society into conflict. Though Nepal is a Hindu dominant secular country the
Muslims are an important and inseparable part of Nepalese community.
• Freedom of religious belief is a common consensus of the international community and
also the precondition and foundation for religious harmony
• Religious structure of Nepal has a unique place in the world.
• Nepal is a multi religious country.
• According to the census 2011, there are 10 types religious groups exist in Nepal.
• Before 2063 B.S.: Nepal was a Hindus country.
• After 2063 Interim-constitution, Nepal is a secular country.
• A secular state is a state or country which is officially neutral in matters of religion,
neither supporting nor opposing any particular religious beliefs or practices (Farooq,
2013).
• According to the 2015 Constitution, to say that Nepal is secular is to say that there is
religious freedom and that someone, presumably the government, must protect those
traditional religions and customs ‘practiced from ancient times’–which, it seems, does
not apply to religions and customs that are less ancient.
• Causes behind religious Harmony in Nepal:
1. Social Acceptance
2. Social Respect
3. Co-operation
4. Government Policy
5. Religious Protection
6. Common Religious sites.
To promote religious harmony:
- need to advocate the idea of “harmony without uniformity.”
- must learn to respect each other
- should shoulder social responsibilities together
- need to oppose any use of religion for ill purposes
- need to guard against religious extremism
• Fagun Purnima, also termed Holi, is derived from the name of
mythical demoness Holika. Like many other festivals in Nepal, Holi
also has a connection to Hindu mythology. It embarks the victory of
good over bad. As per legends, a young boy named Prahalad was a
devotee of Lord Bishnu, whom his father, demon king Mahisasur
considered a mortal enemy. Filled with rage, the demon king ordered
his sister Holika, who was blessed with fire immunity, to kill his own
son. After which, Holika, who sat on fire holding Prahalad, but she
was the one who perished in the flames while the boy lived. 
• And to celebrate that miracle, people play Holi- a celebration of fun,
colors, and happiness. Holi falls in late February or early March. In
recent years, Holi has gained popularity even among tourists.
• Maghe Sankranti is celebrated on the first day of the Magh
months of the Nepalese calendar. It is the indication of the holy
month, usually in the mid of January. The festival hopes to bring
the end of the cold season and expects warmer weather and
better days of health and fortune. On this day, families get
together to eat delicious meals together. People eat sesame
seed treats, ghee, molasses, sweet potatoes, and yams as per
traditions.
• Further, the same day is observed as Maghi- The New Year by
the Tharu community in Terai. They celebrate it with family get-
togethers, eating delicious foods, attending Melas, and dressing
up in traditional wear.
• Indra Jatra is one of the most exciting and revered festivals of the
Newar community of the Kathmandu Valley. It is an eight-day-
long Jatra festival that falls in September. This festival also marks
the beginning of a month-long festival season of autumn. It is
celebrated to commemorate the time when Indra came down to
earth; as per Hindu mythology, Indra is the King of Heaven.
• The Jatra begins with the erection of a wooden pole made of pine
at Basantapur Square in front of the old Hanuman Dhoka Palace.
Further, the chariot of Living Goddess Kumari is taken out for
procession on the street of Kathmandu. Thousands of spectators
gather to see the joyful procession led by masked dancers known
as Lakhey.
• Mahashivaratri, or the night of Shiva, is one of the major festivals of Nepal. Lord
Shiva is a supreme god as per Hindu mythology. As per beliefs on the day of
Shivratri, the stars are at an optimum position that raises spiritual energy.  
• On this day, thousands of Hindu devotees visit the holiest shrine of Hindus, the
Pashupatinath temple, which is also considered the protector of Kathmandu valley
and Nepal. For this festival, the Pashupatinath temple is covered with flowers. Lots
of Sadhus come all the way from India to pray at Pashupati and perform Lord
Shiva’s spiritual Tandav dance on this day. Since it’s a night festival, devotees
celebrate the whole night, chanting and praying for light over darkness. At home,
people gather together, light bonfires, and prepare holy meals on Shivratri.
• Apart from these festivals, Nepal celebrates many other regional, communal and
seasonal festivals. Since there are so many of them, any time of the year promises a
rewarding festive experience. Plan your trip with Himalayan Glacier to experience
the exciting festivals of Nepal. We can help you find the perfect festival and a
memorable cultural trip in Nepal as per your convenience.
• Loshar: Tibetan New year is the combination of two words, Lho means year and sar
means new. Tibetan New Year or Lhosar is one of the most popular festivals of Nepal,
celebrated by different communities on different days. Tamu Lhosar is celebrated
amongst the Gurung community, whereas Sonam Lhosar is celebrated by the Tamang
and Yolmo communities. The third type, Gyalbo Lhosar is observed by the Tibetan and
Sherpa communities. The beginning of new year is celebrated by dance, music, family
meet-ups, exchanging greetings and gifts. Families pray together during this festival
and cook special foods for gods and goddesses. Consuming changkol, made from
chhaang; a local Tibetan drink, similar to beer, is a known practice during Lhosar.
• Key attractions: Mask dance and decorating monasteries and pagodas with colourful
prayer flags.
Date:
• Tamu Lhosar: 30th December 2022
• Sonam Lhosar: 2nd February 2022
• Gyalbo Lhosar: 3rd March 2022
• The festival of Eid al-Fitr, the Festival of Fast-breaking, is an
important religious holiday celebrated by Muslims
worldwide that marks the end of Ramadan, the Islamic
holy month of fasting.  The holiday celebrates the
conclusion of the 29 or 30 days of dawn-to-sunset fasting
during the entire month of Ramadan.
• As the date of Eid depends on the sighting of the moon,
there may be variations in the exact date that is celebrated
around the world. The announcement of the exact dates
of Eid Al-Fitr may not happen until close to the start of
Ramadan.
• Eid al-Fitr is often called the “Festival of Breaking the Fast.” The practice of dawn-to-sunset fasting
during the holy month of Ramadan ("Sawm") is one of the five pillars of Islam. Muslims believe that
it was during the month of Ramadan that the text of the Qur'an was revealed to the Prophet
Muhammad.
• Muslims celebrate Eid Al-Fitr with prayers called "Salat Al Eid" in Arabic. There is no audible call to
prayer for the Eid prayers. Muslims will gather in mosques or open spaces and offer two units of
prayer – called "Rakat". The prayers are followed by a sermon, in which the imam asks for
forgiveness, mercy, and peace for every being across the world.
• It's a tradition to wear new clothes and on the way to the mosque, eat something sweet such as a
date, and recite a small prayer called a takbeer.
• Other key elements of the Eid celebrations are giving money to the poor (known as 'Zakat al-Fitr',
the amount to be given depends on the possessions someone has), sending Eid greetings and
feasting with families.
• For many Muslims, Eid al-Fitr is a festival to show gratitude to Allah for the help and strength he
gave them throughout the month of Ramadan to help them practice self-control.
• The phrase commonly used by Muslims as a greeting on this day is “Eid Mubarak”, which is Arabic
for 'blessed festival'. The proper response to Eid Mubarak is "Khair Mubarak", which wishes
goodness on the person who has greeted you
• Sakela is the biggest festival, Kirats of Nepal celebrate. Ubhauli and Udhauli are the two main festivals
of Sakela. Ubhauli means upward and Udhauli is downward. 

• According to the Holy book of Kirat  'Mundhum', a year of 365 days is divided into two phases Ubhauli
(going up) and Udhauli (going down). The birds migrates from one place from other in these period as well
in old days people used to move uphill and downhill during these seasons.    

• When is Ubhauli 
• Every year Ubhauli is celebrated on Baishak Sulka Purnima. It is on same day of Bhuddha purnima or
Bhuddha Jayanti. 

• This year Sakela Ubhauli is in Baisakh 31, 2071. It is on 14th May 2014 in English calendar.  

• Sakela Ubhauli falls on the month of Baishak (April-May) and Sakela Udhauli falls during then moth of
Mangsir (October-November) of Bikram Sambat calendar.                                              
• How do we celebrate Ubhauli 
• Traditionally the Kirat people used to climb up to the mountains in summer to avoid the heat and malaria
(epidemic) after performing the Ubhauli rituals. During these traditional rituals they worship their
ancestors and nature, seeking better wealth and crops. At the start of winter with similar rituals for
Udhauli they used to move down the hill. 
• The Kirat have strong belief in dead ancestors and the nature. They believe ancestors would get angry
when they are not properly worshipped. These rituals are practice same way these days too. However,
practice or trend of climbing up and down during summer and winter has been stopped these days.   

• In the history of Nepal Kirats are noted to be the first rulers. King Yalamber, the Kirat King was the first King
of Nepal. Kirati live mainly in two different parts of Nepal. They are called Wallo and Pallo Kirat.  Wallo
Kirat is the Western areas of Arun River.  Pallo Kirat is the Eastern part of Arun River. Arun River is on the
eastern part of Nepal.  Mechi and Koshi zones of Nepal are also highly habituated with Kirat population.
• According to Kirat Mythology Paruhang lived in Heaven.
One day he saw beautiful girl named Sumnima walking in
the earth and fell in love with her. He made a beautiful
comb and gifted it to Sumnima. They both got married.
After Sumnima gave birth to four children Paruhang left his
family to live in the hut on the bank of Dudhkoshi River and
did not return for a long time. One day while searching for
food Sumnima found a creeper. She tasted the creeper and
found it to be full of power and happiness. She then made
a Buti out of it. The buti has high power. Whenever
anybody put the buti on he/she used to talk only truth
 Cultural Heritage of Nepal:
• Cultural heritage can be defined as the legacy of physical artifacts (cultural property) and
intangible attributes of a group or society inherited from the past.
• It is a concept which offers a bridge between the past and the future with the application
of particular approaches in the present. Due to its attached values for these groups or
societies, cultural heritage is maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of
future generations.
• It includes artifacts, monuments, a group of buildings and sites, museums that have a
diversity of values including symbolic, historic, artistic, aesthetic, ethnological or
anthropological, scientific and social significance.
• It also includes tangible heritage (movable, immobile and underwater), intangible cultural
heritage (ICH) embedded into cultural, and natural heritage artifacts, sites or monuments
• The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) seeks to
encourage the identification, protection and preservation of cultural and natural heritage
around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity. This is embodied in
an international treaty called the 
Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, adopted
by UNESCO in 1972.
• Nepal joined UNESCO in 1953 and the UNESCO Office in Kathmandu was established in 1998.
• Nepal is a multilingual and multicultural country that
preserves hundreds of cultural heritages of historical
importance. This country known throughout the world as the
home of Mount Everest and Lord Buddha is an intricate
garland of the various ethnicity and castes of people who
have inhabited the land for millennia.
• The country is ruled by diverse dynasties like the Kirant,
Lichchhavis, Mallas, and Shah – all with their own distinct
cultures and architectures. And these rulers have left various
natural as well as religious, cultural, and architectural
heritage.
 World Heritage Convention and Nepal
Nepal ratified the convention in june 20, 1978 and in the following year two
sites (Kathmandu valley and Sagarmatha National Park) were inscribed as
World Heritage sites. The Following are World Heritage sites in Nepal:
1. Kathamandu Valley sites (1979): Criteria(Culture):
a. Kathamandu Durbar Square
b. Patan Durbar Square
c. Bhaktapur Durbar Square
d. Pashupati Nath Temple
e. Swayambhu Nath Stupa
f. Boudha Nath Stupa
g. Changu NarayanTemple
2. Sagarmatha National Park (1979): Criteria (Natural)
3. rt223-Chitwan National Park (1984): Criteria (Natural)
4. Lumbini (Birthplace of Lord Buddha) 1997: Criteria (Cultural)
 Kathmandu Durbar Square

• Kathmandu Durbar Square (Also known as the Hanuman Dhoka Palace), one of the
three Durbar squares in the Kathmandu valley,  is a cluster of ancient temples,
palaces, courtyards, and streets. Situated in the heart of the capital, the site is
surrounded by monuments showing off the cultural and architectural skills of the
Newari craftsmen over the past centuries.
• Surrounded by various courtyards, the plaza itself is a complex of various temples
and palaces made during the Malla and Shah dynasties. Adopted as the royal palace
by the first Shah King after he conquered Kathmandu, the square is considered
important as the location of the coronation ceremony of the king of Nepal.
• Visiting the museums is a great way of taking a peek into the former ruling dynasties,
their lifestyles, cultures, and many other aspects of bygone eras.
• The most fascinating part of the square, however, is the Kumari Chowk, the residence
of the living goddess Kumari, a young girl chosen as the reincarnation of the Hindu
goddess Durga.
• The notable things to explore here include the namesake monument Hanuman
Dhoka, Taleju Mandir, Nine storey Basantapur Tower, Sundari Chowk, Tribhuvan
Museum, King Mahendra Memorial Museum and Kal Bhairab temple in its vicinity.
 Patan Durbar Square

• This Durbar square situated in Patan comprises the palace of the

Malla kings of Patan. The complex consists of a number of
temples along with large bells, idols, and statues facing towards
the main palace. The courtyard floor, tiled with red bricks, and the
old Newari houses in the surrounding areas, give the complex a
very ancient cultural vibe.
• The main attraction of the square is Krishna Mandir, a three
storey temple with beautiful wooden carvings and twenty-one
golden pinnacles, as well as a Bhimsen temple with its three
interconnected golden windows, and the Taleju Bhawani temple
with its five storey’s and triple roofs , Jagat Narayan Temple, Hari
Shanker temple, Vishwanath temple, Bhimsen temple and Rato
Machhendra Temple among others
 Bhaktapur Durbar Square

• The Bhaktapur Durbar square is the last of the 3 old palaces of

Kathmandu. Bhaktapur, also known as Khwopa or Bhadgaon is a
medieval city located around 12 km east of Kathmandu. The Durbar
Square here is one of the best showcases of Nepali architecture and
craftsmanship. The four squares – Durbar Square, Taumadhi Square,
Dattatreya Square, and Pottery Square collectively make up the
Bhaktapur Durbar square. The most notable landmarks and monuments
include the Lions Gate, Golden Gate, Art Gallery, Statue of King
Bhupatindra, Nyatapola Temple and fifty-five windowed Malla palace.
• The main attractions of the square, however, are more intricate and
artistic. These include the 55-windowed palace, the Lion’s Gate, the
Golden Gate, the Nyatapola Temple, and the Bhairavnath Temple, along
with many more exquisite examples of the artwork and architectural
skills of Nepali craftsmen.
 Pashupatinath Temple

•  One of the most sacred Hindu temples in the world, Pashupatinath is a

millennia old temple dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple complex consists of the
main temple and compound, surrounded by a variety of smaller temples,
ashrams and sculptures and is bordered by the holy Bagmati River to the east.
• Observing the various rituals, ceremonies as well as funeral is a fascinating
experience for tourists. A testament to the importance of this temple is the sheer
amount of pilgrims it attracts, particularly during the holy occasions like Teej and
Shivaratri where visitors number to hundreds of thousands in a single day. The
Pashupatinath Temple was one of the first sites in Nepal to be designated as a
UNSECO World Heritage Site (1979).
• The main temple housing the sacred Shiva Linga is located in a fortified complex
and is built in Nepalese pagoda style with cubic construction, beautiful wooden
carvings, and roofs of copper covered with gold.  The temple has four doors with
a golden pinnacle that gives it a glorious look.
 Swayambhu Nath Stupa
• Situated in the western part of Kathmandu, Swoyambhunath is one of the
most distinct, ancient, and important Buddhist pilgrim sites in Nepal.
• Indeed it is among the most fascinating architectural jewels in the world.
The Great Stupa is said to have been built around 250 B.C. Its white
dome symbolizes a spotless gemstone of Nirvana which is an epitome of a
typical Buddhist architectural style.
• A religiously significant place for both the Nepali and Tibetan Buddhists, the
complex consists of a stupa plus a number of shrines, temples, and statues
(that make up the original monuments) and the Tibetan monastery, library,
and museums (that make up the new).
• Also, known as the ‘monkey temple’ because of the hundreds of monkeys
loitering around the hill, the main Stupa is a dome at the base covered by a
cube structure covered by a toran, while above that is the Gajur. A number
of shrines, statues, and artifacts adorn the stupa, with a series of praying
wheels also around the dome.
 Boudha Nath Stupa

• Boudha – situated to the northeast of the capital city – is the largest

spherical Stupa in Nepal. It is the most important shrine for Tibetan
Buddhists who visit the site frequently along with other Hindu
pilgrims. And, it is also the single largest Chorten in the world.
• Made up of large amounts of gold, every part of the monument’s
architecture has an abstract spiritual meaning. Surrounded by Tibetan
monasteries, a number of souvenir shops, restaurants, and hotels,
Boudhanath Stupa is one of the most famous tourist destinations in 
Nepal.
• Many visitors experience spiritual peace as they do their ritual
circumnavigation of the dome beneath the peaceful wisdom eyes of
the Buddha that gaze out at them from within the gilded central
tower.
 Changu NarayanTemple:

• The oldest temple of the Kathmandu valley, Changunarayan is a fine

example of the stone, wood and metal craftwork to be found in the valley.
• The temple lies atop a hill and is dedicated to Lord Vishnu, with the shrines
of Lord Shiva, Chhinamasta, Kileshwor, and Krishna located in the
courtyard of the main temple. A number of statues and inscriptions are
found in the walls and carvings of the complex.
• They feature gods, their incarnations, and various other religious symbols. 
There are museums in the area that house extremely rare historical,
artistic, and cultural objects and photographs.
• A true gem from the Lichhavai period (fourth to ninth centuries),
Changunaraya Temple is covered in stone, wood, and metal carvings which
are found throughout the courtyard surrounding the main temple. This is a
living museum that displays the time of 6th century BC.
 Lumbini (Birthplace of Lord Buddha):

• Out of all the heritages in Nepal, the most famous one would have
to be Lumbini since it is, after all, the home of Lord Buddha, the
preacher of peace to the whole world.
• The site comprises a number of temples, monasteries and
museums; some that date back centuries, and some that are in the
middle of construction. The historic site is 4.8 km in length and 1.6
km in width and contains the ruins of ancient monasteries, a Bodhi
tree, an ancient bathing pond, and the Ashoka pillar.
• These few heritages that have settled in the land of Nepal
showcase the ancient history, art, culture, and traditions during the
time of our forefathers. These heritages are definite to give you a
clearer glimpse of the socio-historic condition of Nepal.
 Sagarmatha National Park:
• Establishment: 2032 BS (1976 AD)
• Establishment of Buffer Zone : 2058 BS (2002 AD).
• Area: 1,148 sq.Km.
• Area of Buffer Zone: 275 sq.km
• Located in Solukhumbu District of State Number 1 in
eastern Nepal.
 Chitwan National Park:
• Establishment: 2030 BS (1973 AD)
• Establishment of Buffer Zone: 2053 BS (1996 AD).
• Area: 952.63 aq.km.
• Area of buffer Zone: 729.37 sq.km.
• The park covers Chitwan, Makwanpur, Parsa and
some parts of Nawalparis district .
• First National Park of Nepal.
 Literature:
• It is the language through which literature is expressed.
• The word, literature, has a wider scope. Although the poetry has been
called literature in Sanskrit, poetry and literature have separate existence
in present time.
• Literature covers all story, poetry, novel, essay, drama, etc. According to
the eastern scholar Bhamaha, "The coexistence of words and meaning is
literature." Literature has been created in the major languages which are
in use in Nepal. However, such literature has not been identified yet.
• The development and expansion of Nepali literature is studied by dividing
it in to three ages:
A. Primary Period up to 1939 BS:
B. Medieval Age: 1940 to 1974 BS
C. Modern Age: 1975 BS to till date
A. Primary Period up to 1939 BS:
• period covers from the beginning to Motiram Bhatta
and to the period prior to the beginning of romantic
age.
• This period includes the periods of the inscriptions
(stone plated, copper plated, gold plated) and lent
handwritten inscriptions. Old hand written books are
also regarded important in studying Nepali language
and literature.
B. Medieval Age: 1940 to 1974 BS
• it was the period when there was orderly rule of arrogant
Ranas, the then literature was influenced by it and thus
romantic literature and poems were created at that time.
• Started with heroic deeds, the Nepali literature had already
entered reverence in primary age. The medieval age of
Nepali literature in fact can also be called the period of
Motiram Bhatta.
• Motiram Bhatta had contributed a lot in a of time. During
the time he established a press and published many books.
• In 1943 BS he had published a literary magazine named
Bharat Jeevan under his own editorship. He had led the
romantic Gorkha Bharat Jeevan poetry not be said that only
the romantic poems were composed in the medieval age.
• The literary writers of the medieval age were Shambhu
Prasad Dhungel, Gopinath Lohani, Chakrapani Chalise,
Somnath Sigdhyal, Girishballav Joshi, Ram Prasad Satyal,
Pahalman Singh Swar, etc. including Motiram.
• The medieval age has been found to be divided two
sections: pre-medieval age (reverent literature) and
post-medieval age (romantic literature). Even in
reverent literature, three types of literature; Krishna
Bhakti Dhara, Ram Bhakti Dhara and Nirgun Bhakti
Dhara are found.
C. Modern Age: 1975 BS to till date
• The modern age in Nepali literature is supposed to have
begun with the entry of founding father of modern poetry,
Lekhnath Paudyal.
• The modern age of poetry is supposed to have started
after the publication of his poetry "Ritubichar' in 1973 BS.
• 'Mutuko Byatha', the drama by Balkrishna Sama,
• 'Doshi Chasma', the story by Bisheshwor Prasad Koirala,
• "Lakshyahin', the one-act play by Pushkar Shamsher and
'Boksi' by Balkrishna Sama are regarded as the modern
age literature.
• Nepali literature is found to have attained its speed and
height after 2007 ne activities including the establishment
of Nepal Academy and lan Puraskar are found to have
contributed in making Nepali re rich and prosperous.
• The dimensional movement (Aayameli Andolan) started
around 2016-2017 and gave a new turnin literature. After 3
decades, Nepali poetry has be towards simplicity and artistic
by rising up from decades, Nepali poetry has been found to be
oriented artistic by rising up from the state of difficulties of
understanding.
• After that, new styles, experiments and ap that, new styles,
experiments and approaches began to emerge. Nepali
literature has been influenced from postmodern been
influenced from postmodern thought in the later decades.
• There has been the dissolution in trad s been the dissolution in
traditional forms and style of literary genres. Thoughts, styles
and subjects used in literature in modernized way. Reaching
to the mo houghts, styles and subjects have been being kinds
of literary works have already been published in zed way.
Reaching to the modern age, many ready been publish
Authers and literary works Name Published Books :
Bhanubhakta Acharya: (first Badhushikshya, Prashnottar, Bhaktamala
poets)
Motiram Bhatta (the Panchak Prapancha, Pikdoot, Gajendramokshya,
Gupha youth romantic poet) Sundari, Priyadarshika
Lekhnath poudel.The father Ritu Bichar, Buddhibinod, Tarun Tapasi,
Gangagauri,
Laxmi P. of Modern Nepali poetry Gaurab
Balkrishna sama Mutuko Byatha, Pralhad, Mukunda Indira, Andhabea
Nattya Samrat) Bhanubhakta, Ma, Prem Pinda, Amarsingh, Matoko
Mamata. Bhime ko Antya, Motiram, U Mareki Chhaina, Niyamit
Aakasmikata
Laxmi Prasad Devkota (The Pahadi Pukar, Sunko Bihan, Chhahara,
Putali, Mrityu Shaiyyabata great poet) Aakash Bolchha, Maina,
Raban Jatayu Yuddha, Shakuntal, Sulochana Maharan Pratap.
• Prithiviraj Chauhan, Munamadan, Champa, Laxmi Katha Sangraha, Laxmi
Nibandha Sangraha
• Bhimnidhi Tiwari Sahanshila Sushila, Putali, Chautara, Laxminarayan,
Matoko Maya, Kabita Kunja, Bisphot Bhawani Bhikshu Gunkeshari, Maiya
Saheb, Aabarta, Chhaya, Prakash,
• Aagat Chandra Prasad Pradhan Bhuswarga, Junga, (Hridaychandra Singh
Afasos, Gangalalko Chita, Swasnimanchhe, Ek Chihan Pradhan)
• Siddhicharan Sherestha Kopila, Mero Pratibimba, Kuhiro ra Gham, Urbasi,
Aansu, Bhimsen yogkabi Gopalprasad Rimal Aamako Sapana, Masan, Yo
Prem
• Diamon Samsher Rana Basanti, Seto Bagh, Satprayas, Anita Griha Prabesh
• Madhav Prasad Ghimire Nabamanjari, Ghampani, Kinnar Kinnari, Bala
Lahari. Gaun National poets Rajeshwori, Papini Aama, Rashtra Nirmata.
Shakuntala, Malatimangale, Aafnai Basuri, Aafnai Geet
• Gobinda Bahadur Malla Kathaikatha, Prem ra Mrityu, Bhusko Aago,
Chatiyeko Parda, Bhoko Ghar
• Indra Bahadur Rai Bipana Katipaya, Kathastha, Aaja Ramita Chha Kanak
Mani Dixit Yesto Pani, Kalo Akshyar, Kagatiko Sirup, Buki Sun, Saglo Akshyar
• Bhupendra man Sherchan archan Ghumne Mech Mathi Andho Manchhe,
Paribartan, Mainbattiko
• Bishnu Kumari waiba :Shirishko Phool, Maile Najanmayeko
Chhoro, Parkhal Bhitra Ra Bahira, Parijat Mahattahin, Baisko
Manchhe, Antarmukhi, Aakanchhaya
• Bishweshwor Prasad: Sumnima, Doshi Chasma, Modi Aain,
Hitler Ra Yahudi, Buba, Aama Ra Koirala Chhora, Aafno Katha
• Jhammk Kumari Ghimire: Jiban Kada Ki PhoolSangkalpa,
Aafnai Chita Agnishikhatira, hebhitraka Yodhhaharu, Abasan
Pachhiko Aagaman, Jhamak Ghimireka Kabitaharu
• Modnath Poudel: prasid Jhasiki Rani, Kehi Sanskritik
Nibandhaharu, Manav Mah Aamako Aansu, Nari Bandhan Ra
Mukti
• Satay Mohan joshi: Hamro Lok Sanskriti, Nepali Rashtriya
Mudra, Karnali Sanskrit Kali Prasad Rijal Ke Chha Ra Jindagi
Bitaidinchhu, Yo Prashna Kosita Sodhau.