‫الجامعة السعودية االلكترونية‬

‫الجامعة السعودية االلكترونية‬

‫‪26/12/2021‬‬
College of Computing and Informatics

Introduction to Database
Introduction to Database

Database System Concepts and Architecture

Contents
1. Database System Concepts and Architecture
Weekly Learning Outcomes

1. Explain Database System Concepts and Architecture.

Required Reading
1. Chapter 2: Database System Concepts and Architecture
(Fundamentals of Database Systems, Global Edition, 7th
Edition (2017) by Ramez Elmasri & Shamkant Navathe)

Recommended Reading
Database System Concepts and Architecture:
https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~tozsu/courses/CS338/lectures/14%20DB%20System.pdf

This Presentation is mainly dependent on the textbook: Fundamentals of Database Systems, Global Edition, 7th Edition (2017) by Ramez Elmasri & Shamkant Navathe
• Database System Concepts and Architecture
Data Models
• Data Model:
– A set of concepts to describe the structure of a database, the operations
for manipulating the data, and the constraints that the data should follow.
• Data Model Structure and Constraints:
– Data Model constructs define the database structure
– Data model constructs often include: data elements and their data types
(often called attributes); grouping of related elements into entities (also
called objects or records or tuples); and relationships among entities
– Constraints specify restrictions on the stored data; the data that satisfies
the constraints is called valid data
• Data Model Operations:
– These operations are used for specifying database retrievals and
updates by referring to the constructs of the data model.
– Operations on the data model may include basic model operations
(e.g. generic insert, delete, update) and user-defined operations
(e.g. compute_student_gpa, update_inventory)
Categories of Data Models

• Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:

– Provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive
data.
• (Also called entity-based or object-based data models.)
• Physical (low-level, internal) data models:
– Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored in
the computer. These are usually specified in an ad-hoc manner
through DBMS design and administration manuals
• Implementation (representational) data models:
– Provide concepts that fall between the above two, used by many
commercial DBMS implementations (e.g. relational data models
used in many commercial systems).
 Database Schema versus Database State (1)
• Database Schema:
– The description of a database.
– Includes descriptions of the database structure, relationships, data types, and
constraints
• Schema Diagram:
– An illustrative display of a database schema
• Schema Construct:
– A component of the schema or an object in the schema, e.g., STUDENT,
COURSE, Name
• Database State:
– The actual data stored in a database at a particular moment in time. This
includes the collection of all the data in the database.
– Also called a database instance, occurrence, or snapshot.
Database Schema vs. Database State (2)
• Initial Database State:
– Refers to the database state when it is initially loaded into the
system.
• Valid State:
– A state that satisfies the structure and constraints of the
database.
• Distinction
– The database schema changes very infrequently.
– The database state changes every time the database is updated.
• Schema is also called intension.
• State is also called extension.
Example of a Database Schema
Three-Schema Architecture (1)
• Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:
– Program-data independence.
– Support of multiple views of the data.
• Not explicitly used in commercial DBMS products, but has
been useful in explaining database system organization
• Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
– Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical storage
structures and access paths (e.g. indexes).
• Typically uses a physical data model.
– Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the structure
and constraints for the whole database for a community of users. Uses
an implementation (or a conceptual) data model.
– External schemas at the external level to describe the various user
views.
• Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual schema.
Three-Schema Architecture (2)

• Mappings among schema levels are needed to

transform requests and data.
– Users and programs refer to an external schema, and are
mapped by the DBMS to the internal schema for execution.
– Data extracted from the internal DBMS level is reformatted
to match the user’s external view (e.g. formatting the
results of an SQL query for display as a Web page)
Data Independence
• Logical Data Independence:
– The capacity to change the conceptual schema without having to change
the external schemas and their associated application programs.
• Physical Data Independence:
– The capacity to change the internal schema without having to change the
conceptual schema.
– For example, the internal schema may be changed when certain file
structures are reorganized or new indexes are created to improve
database performance
• When a schema at a lower level is changed, only the mappings
between this schema and higher-level schemas need to be
changed in a DBMS that fully supports data independence.
• The higher-level schemas themselves are unchanged.
– Hence, the application programs need not be changed since they refer to
the external schemas.
 DBMS Languages (DDL)
• Data Definition Language (DDL):
– Used by the DBA and database designers to specify the
conceptual schema of a database.
– In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define internal
and external schemas (views).
– Theoretically, separate storage definition language
(SDL) and view definition language (VDL) can used to
define internal and external schemas. In practice:
• SDL is typically realized via DBMS commands provided to the
DBA and database designers
• VDL is typically part of the same language as DDL
 DBMS Languages (DML)
• Data Manipulation Language (DML):
– Used to specify database retrievals and updates
– DML commands (data sublanguage) can be embedded in a general-purpose
programming language (host language), such as COBOL, C, C++, or Java
• A library of functions can also be provided to access the DBMS from a programming
language
– Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be applied directly (called a
query language).
• Types of DML:
– High-Level Declarative (Set-oriented, Non-procedural) Languages,
such as the relational language SQL
• Specify “what” data to retrieve rather then “how” to retrieve it
• May be used in a standalone way or may be embedded in a programming language
– Low Level or Procedural (Record-at-a-time) Languages:
• Must be embedded in a programming language
• Need programming language constructs such as looping
DBMS Interfaces

• Stand-alone query language interfaces

– Example: Typing SQL queries directly through the DBMS interactive SQL interface
(e.g. SQL*Plus in ORACLE)
• Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in programming languages
• User-friendly interfaces (often Web-based)
– Menu-based, forms-based, graphics-based, etc.
• Menu-based, popular for browsing on the web
• Forms-based, designed for naïve users
• Graphics-based
• Supports Point and Click, Drag and Drop, etc.
• Natural language: requests in written English
• Combinations of the above:
• For example, both menus and forms used extensively in Web database interfaces
DBMS Programming Language Interfaces

• Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in a

programming language:
– Embedded Approach: e.g. embedded SQL (for C, C++,
etc.), SQLJ (for Java)
– Procedure Call Approach: e.g. JDBC for Java, ODBC for
other programming languages
– Database Programming Language Approach: e.g.
ORACLE has PL/SQL, a programming language based
on SQL; language incorporates SQL and its data types
as integral components
Other DBMS Interfaces

• Speech as Input and Output

• Web Browser as an interface
• Parametric interfaces, e.g., bank tellers using function
keys.
• Interfaces for the DBA:
• Creating user accounts, granting authorizations
• Setting system parameters
• Changing schemas or storage structures/access paths (physical
database)
Database System Utilities
• To perform certain functions such as:
– Loading data stored in files into a database; includes data
conversion tools.
– Backing up the database periodically on tape.
– Reorganizing database file structures.
– Report generation utilities.
– Performance monitoring utilities.
– Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring, data
compression, etc.
Other Tools
• Data dictionary/repository:
– Used to store schema descriptions and other information such as
design decisions, application program descriptions, user
information, usage standards, etc.
– Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS software and
users/DBA.
– Passive data dictionary is accessed by users/DBA only.
• Application Development Environments and CASE
(Computer-aided software engineering) tools often have a
database design component
• Examples:
– PowerBuilder (Sybase)
– JBuilder (Borland)
– JDeveloper 10G (Oracle)
Typical DBMS Component Modules
DBMS Architectures

• Centralized DBMS Architecture:

– Combines everything into single computer system, including: DBMS
software, hardware, application programs, and user interface processing
software.
– User can still connect through a remote terminal – however, all
processing is done at centralized site (computer).
• Basic 2-tier Client-Server Architecture: Specialized Server nodes
with Specialized functions
– Print server
– File server
– DBMS server
– Web server
– Email server
• Client nodes can access the specialized servers as needed
A Physical Centralized Architecture
Logical two-tier client server architecture
DBMS Server

• Provides database query and transaction services to the

clients
• Relational DBMS servers are often called SQL servers, query
servers, or transaction servers
• Applications running on clients utilize an Application Program
Interface (API) to access server databases via standard
interface such as:
– ODBC: Open Database Connectivity standard
– JDBC: for Java programming access
• Client and server must install appropriate client module and
server module software for ODBC or JDBC
Client nodes
• Provide appropriate interfaces through a client
software module to access and utilize the various
server resources.
• Clients may be PCs or Workstations (or even diskless
machines) with the client software installed.
• Connected to the servers via a network.
– LAN: local area network
– wireless network
Two Tier Client-Server DBMS
Architecture
• A program running at a client may connect to several
DBMSs (also called data sources).
• In general, data sources can be files or other non-
DBMS software that manages data.
• Client focuses on user interface interactions and only
accesses database when needed.
• In some cases (e.g. some object DBMSs), more
functionality is transferred to clients (e.g. data
dictionary functions, optimization and recovery
across multiple servers, etc.)
Three Tier Client-Server DBMS
Architecture
• Common for Web applications
• Third intermediate layer (middle tier) called Application Server
or Web Server:
– Stores the web connectivity software and the business logic part
of the application
– Accesses and updates data on the database server
– Acts like a conduit for sending partially processed data between
the database server and the client.
• Three-tier Architecture Can Enhance Security:
– Database server only accessible via middle tier
– Clients cannot directly access database server
Three-tier client-server architecture
• Classification of Database Management Systems
 Classification of DBMSs
• Based on the data model used
– Traditional: Relational, Hierarchical, Network.
– Emerging: Object-oriented, Object-relational, NOSQL, Key-value.
• Based on allowed users
– Single-user (typically used with personal computers) vs. Multi-user (most DBMSs).
– Centralized (uses a single computer with one database) vs. Distributed (uses multiple computers,
multiple databases)
• Based on number of sites
– A DBMS is centralized if the data is stored at a single computer site.
– A distributed DBMS (DDBMS) can have the actual database and DBMS software distributed over
many sites connected by a computer network.
• Based on type of DBMS software
– Homogeneous DDBMSs use the same DBMS software at all the sites.
– Heterogeneous DDBMSs can use different DBMS software at each site. This may further lead to
federated DBMS.
• Big data systems (NOSQL systems)
– Key-value model
– Document-based model
– Graph-based model
– Column-based model
Cost considerations for DBMSs

• Cost Range: from free open-source systems to configurations

costing millions of dollars
• Examples of free relational DBMSs: MySQL, PostgreSQL, others
• Commercial DBMSs offer additional specialized modules, e.g.
time-series module, spatial data module, document module,
XML module
– These offer additional specialized functionality when purchased
separately
– Sometimes called cartridges (e.g., in Oracle) or blades
• Different licensing options: site license, maximum number of
concurrent users (seat license), single user, etc.
History of Data Models (1)
1. Network Model
2. Hierarchical Model
3. Relational Model
4. Object-oriented Data Models
5. Object-Relational Models
• Network Model:
– The first network DBMS was implemented by Honeywell in 1964-65 (IDS
System).
– Adopted heavily due to the standard support by CODASYL (Conference
on Data Systems Languages) (CODASYL - DBTG report of 1971).
– Later implemented in a large variety of systems - IDMS (Cullinet - now
Computer Associates), DMS 1100 (Unisys), IMAGE (H.P. (Hewlett-
Packard)), VAX -DBMS (Digital Equipment Corp., next COMPAQ, now
H.P.).
Example of Network Model Schema
Network Model
• Advantages:
– Can model complex relationships among records and represents
semantics of add/delete on the relationships.
– Can handle most situations for modeling using record types and
relationship types.
– Language is navigational; uses constructs like FIND, FIND member,
FIND owner, FIND NEXT within set, GET, etc.
• Programmers can do optimal navigation through the database.
• Disadvantages:
– Navigational and procedural nature of processing requires
programming access
– Intermixes storage structures with conceptual modeling relationships
– Database contains a complex array of pointers that thread through a
set of records.
• Little scope for automated “query optimization”
Hierarchical Model
• Hierarchical Data Model:
– Initially implemented in a joint effort by IBM and North American Rockwell around
1965. Resulted in the IMS family of systems.
– IBM’s IMS product had a very large customer base worldwide
– Hierarchical model was formalized based on the IMS system
– Other systems based on this model: System 2k (SAS inc.)
• Advantages:
– Can implement certain tasks very efficiently
– Easy to store hierarchically organized data, e.g., organization (“org”) charts
• Disadvantages:
– Navigational and procedural nature of processing
– Difficult to store databases where multiple relationships exist among the data
records
– Little scope for “query optimization” by system (programmer must optimize the
programs)
– Language is procedural: Uses constructs like GET, GET UNIQUE, GET NEXT, GET NEXT
WITHIN PARENT, etc.
Relational Model

• Relational Model:
– Proposed in 1970 by E.F. Codd (IBM), first commercial systems in
early 1980s.
– Now in many commercial products (e.g. DB2, ORACLE, MS SQL
Server, SYBASE, INFORMIX).
– Several free open source implementations, e.g. MySQL,
PostgreSQL
– Currently most dominant for developing database applications.
– SQL relational standards: SQL-89 (SQL1), SQL-92 (SQL2), SQL-99,
SQL3, SQL-2008
– Chapters 3 through 6 describe this model in detail
Object-oriented Models
• Object-oriented Data Models:
– Allow databases to be used seamlessly with object-oriented
programming languages.
– Can store persistent objects created in O-O Programming
Languages such as C++ (e.g., in OBJECTSTORE or VERSANT), and
Smalltalk (e.g., in GEMSTONE).
– Other experimental systems include O2, ORION (at MCC - then
ITASCA), IRIS (at H.P.- used in Open OODB).
– Object Database Standard: ODMG-93, ODMG-version 2.0,
ODMG-version 3.0.
Object-Relational Models

• Object-Relational Models:
– Relational systems incorporated concepts from object
databases leading to object-relational.
– Exemplified in the latest versions of Oracle-10i, DB2, and
SQL Server and other DBMSs.
– Standards started in SQL-99 and enhanced in SQL-2008.
Main Reference
1. Chapter 2: Database System Concepts and Architecture
(Fundamentals of Database Systems, Global Edition, 7th
Edition (2017) by Ramez Elmasri & Shamkant Navathe)

Additional References
https://courses.cs.vt.edu/cs4604/Spring21/pdfs/1-intro.pdf

This Presentation is mainly dependent on the textbook: Fundamentals of Database Systems, Global Edition, 7th Edition (2017) by Ramez Elmasri & Shamkant Navathe
Thank You