Chapter 2 Data Representation

Chapter 2
Data Representation in
Computer Systems
Chapter 2 Objectives
• Understand the fundamentals of numerical data

representation and manipulation in digital
computers.
• Master the skill of converting between various
radix systems.
• Understand how errors can occur in computations
because of overflow and truncation.
2
Chapter 2 Objectives
• Gain familiarity with the most popular character

codes.
• Become aware of the differences between how
data is stored in computer memory, how it is
transmitted over telecommunication lines, and how
it is stored on disks.
• Understand the concepts of error detecting and
correcting codes.
3
2.1 Introduction
• A bit is the most basic unit of information in a

computer.
– It is a state of “on” or “off” in a digital circuit.
– Sometimes these states are “high” or “low” voltage
instead of “on” or “off..”
• A byte is a group of eight bits.
– A byte is the smallest possible addressable unit of
computer storage.
– The term, “addressable,” means that a particular byte can
be retrieved according to its location in memory.
4
2.1 Introduction
• A word is a contiguous group of bytes.

– Words can be any number of bits or bytes.
– Word sizes of 16, 32, or 64 bits are most common.
– In a word-addressable system, a word is the smallest
addressable unit of storage.
• A group of four bits is called a nibble (or nybble).
– Bytes, therefore, consist of two nibbles: a “high-order
nibble,” and a “low-order” nibble.
5
2.2 Positional Numbering Systems
• Bytes store numbers when the position of each bit

represents a power of 2.
– The binary system is also called the base-2 system.
– Our decimal system is the base-10 system. It uses
powers of 10 for each position in a number.
– Any integer quantity can be represented exactly
using any base (or radix).
6
• The decimal number 947 in powers of 10 is:
9  10 2 + 4  10 1 + 7  10 0
• The decimal number 5836.47 in powers of 10 is:
5  10 3 + 8  10 2 + 3  10 1 + 6  10 0
+ 4  10 -1 + 7  10 -2
7
• The binary number 11001 in powers of 2 is:

124+123+022 +021+120
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 25
• When the radix of a number is something other

than 10, the base is denoted by a subscript.
– Sometimes, the subscript 10 is added for emphasis:
110012 = 2510
8
2.3 Decimal to Binary Conversions
• Because binary numbers are the basis for all data

representation in digital computer systems, it is
important that you become proficient with this radix
system.
• Your knowledge of the binary numbering system
will enable you to understand the operation of all
computer components as well as the design of
instruction set architectures.
9
• In a previous slide, we said that every integer

value can be represented exactly using any radix
system.
• You can use either of two methods for radix
conversion: the subtraction method and the
division remainder method.
• The subtraction method is more intuitive, but
cumbersome. It does, however reinforce the ideas
behind radix mathematics.
10
• Suppose we want to convert

the decimal number 190 to
base 3.
– We know that 3 5 = 243
so our result will be less
than six digits wide. The
largest power of 3 that we
need is therefore 3 4 = 81,
and 81  2 = 162.
– Write down the 2 and
subtract 162 from 190,
giving 28. 11
• Converting 190 to base 3...

– The next power of 3 is
3 3 = 27. We’ll
need one of these, so
we subtract 27 and
write down the numeral
1 in our result.
– The next power of 3, 3 2
= 9, is too large, but we
have to assign a
placeholder of zero and 12
carry down the 1.


– 3 1 = 3 is again too
large, so we assign a
zero placeholder.
– The last power of 3, 3 0
= 1, is our last choice,
and it gives us a
difference of zero.
– Our result, reading
from top to bottom is:
19010 = 210013 13
• Another method of converting integers from

decimal to some other radix uses division.
• This method is mechanical and easy.
• It employs the idea that successive division by a
base is equivalent to successive subtraction by
powers of the base.
• Let’s use the division remainder method to again
convert 190 in decimal to base 3.
14

– First we take the
number that we wish to
convert and divide it by
the radix in which we
want to express our
result.
– In this case, 3 divides
190 63 times, with a
remainder of 1.
– Record the quotient and 15

– 63 is evenly divisible
by 3.
– Our remainder is zero,
and the quotient is 21.
16

– Continue in this way
until the quotient is zero.
– In the final calculation,
we note that 3 divides 2
zero times with a
remainder of 2.
– Our result, reading from
bottom to top is:
19010 = 210013
17
• Fractional values can be approximated in all

base systems.
• Unlike integer values, fractions do not
necessarily have exact representations under all
radices.
• The quantity ½ is exactly representable in the
binary and decimal systems, but is not in the
ternary (base 3) numbering system.
18
• Fractional decimal values have nonzero digits to

the right of the decimal point.
• Fractional values of other radix systems have
nonzero digits to the right of the radix point.
• Numerals to the right of a radix point represent
negative powers of the radix:
0.47 = 4  10 -1 + 7  10 -2
10
0.11 = 1  2 -1 + 1  2 -2
2
= ½ + ¼
= 0.5 + 0.25 = 0.75
19
• As with whole-number conversions, you can use

either of two methods: a subtraction method and
an easy multiplication method.
• The subtraction method for fractions is identical to
the subtraction method for whole numbers.
Instead of subtracting positive powers of the target
radix, we subtract negative powers of the radix.
• We always start with the largest value first, n -1,
where n is our radix, and work our way along
using larger negative exponents.
20
• The calculation to the

right is an example of
using the subtraction
method to convert the
decimal 0.8125 to binary.
– Our result, reading
from top to bottom
is:
0.812510 =
0.11012
– Of course, this
method works with
21
• Using the multiplication

method to convert the
decimal 0.8125 to binary,
we multiply by the radix 2.
– The first product
carries into the units
place.
22
• Converting 0.8125 to binary . . .

– Ignoring the value in the
units place at each step,
continue multiplying each
fractional part by the
radix.
23
• Converting 0.8125 to binary . . .

– You are finished when the
product is zero, or until
you have reached the
desired number of binary
places.
– Our result, reading from
top to bottom is:
0.812510 = 0.11012
– This method also works
with any base. Just use the 24
target radix as the

• The binary numbering system is the most

important radix system for digital computers.
• However, it is difficult to read long strings of binary
numbers-- and even a modestly-sized decimal
number becomes a very long binary number.
– For example: 110101000110112 = 1359510
• For compactness and ease of reading, binary
values are usually expressed using the
hexadecimal, or base-16, numbering system.
25
• The hexadecimal numbering system uses the

numerals 0 through 9 and the letters A through F.
– The decimal number 12 is B16.
– The decimal number 26 is 1A16.
• It is easy to convert between base 16 and base 2,
because 16 = 24.
• Thus, to convert from binary to hexadecimal, all
we need to do is group the binary digits into
groups of four.
A group of four binary digits is called a hextet
26
• Using groups of hextets, the binary number

110101000110112 (= 1359510) in hexadecimal is:
• Octal (base 8) values are derived from binary by

using groups of three bits (8 = 23):
Octal was very useful when computers used six-bit words.
27
2.4 Signed Integer Representation
• The conversions we have so far presented have

involved only positive numbers.
• To represent negative values, computer systems
allocate the high-order bit to indicate the sign of a
value.
– The high-order bit is the leftmost bit in a byte. It is also
called the most significant bit.
• The remaining bits contain the value of the
number.
28
Signed Magnitude System
• There are three ways in which signed binary

numbers may be expressed:
– Signed magnitude,
– One’s complement and
– Two’s complement.
• In an 8-bit word, signed magnitude
representation places the absolute value of
the number in the 7 bits to the right of the
sign bit.
29
• For example, in 8-bit signed magnitude,

positive 3 is:00000011
• Negative 3 is: 10000011
• Computers perform arithmetic operations on
signed magnitude numbers in much the same
way as humans carry out pencil and paper
arithmetic.
– Humans often ignore the signs of the operands
while performing a calculation, applying the
appropriate sign after the calculation is complete.
30
• Binary addition is as easy as it gets. You need

to know only four rules:
0 + 0 = 0 0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1 1 + 1 = 10
• The simplicity of this system makes it possible
for digital circuits to carry out arithmetic
operations.
– We will describe these circuits in Chapter 3.
Let’s see how the addition rules work with signed magnitude numbers . . .
31
• Example:
– Using signed magnitude
binary arithmetic, find the
sum of 75 and 46.
• First, convert 75 and 46 to
binary, and arrange as a sum,
but separate the (positive)
sign bits from the magnitude
bits.
32
• Example:
sum of 75 and 46.
• Just as in decimal arithmetic,
we find the sum starting with
the rightmost bit and work left.
33
• Example:
sum of 75 and 46.
• In the second bit, we have a
carry, so we note it above the
third bit.
34
• Example:
sum of 75 and 46.
• The third and fourth bits also
give us carries.
35
• Example:
– Using signed magnitude binary
arithmetic, find the sum of 75
and 46.
• Once we have worked our way
through all eight bits, we are
done.
In this example, we were careful careful to pick two values whose sum would fit into seven bits. If
that is not the case, we have a problem.
36
• Example:
– Using signed magnitude binary
and 46.
• We see that the carry from the
seventh bit overflows and is
discarded, giving us the
erroneous result: 107 + 46 = 25.
37
• The signs in signed

magnitude representation
work just like the signs in
pencil and paper arithmetic.
– Example: Using signed
magnitude binary arithmetic,
find the sum of - 46 and - 25.
• Because the signs are the same, all we do is add the numbers and supply the
negative sign when we are done.
38
• Mixed sign addition (or

subtraction) is done the
same way.
– Example: Using signed
magnitude binary arithmetic,
find the sum of 46 and - 25.
• The sign of the result gets the sign of the number that is larger.
– Note the “borrows” from the second and sixth bits.
39
• Signed magnitude representation is easy for

people to understand, but it requires
complicated computer hardware.
• Another disadvantage of signed magnitude is
that it allows two different representations for
zero: positive zero and negative zero.
• For these reasons (among others) computers
systems employ complement systems for
numeric value representation.
40
Complement system
• In complement systems, negative values are

represented by some difference between a
number and its base.
• In diminished radix complement systems, a
negative value is given by the difference between
the absolute value of a number and one less than
its base.
• In the binary system, this gives us one’s
complement. It amounts to little more than flipping
the bits of a binary number.
41
• For example, in 8-bit one’s complement,

positive 3 is:00000011
• Negative 3 is: 11111100
– In one’s complement, as with signed magnitude,
negative values are indicated by a 1 in the high order
bit.
• Complement systems are useful because they
eliminate the need for special circuitry for
subtraction. The difference of two values is found
by adding the minuend to the complement of the
subtrahend.
42
• With one’s complement

addition, the carry bit is
“carried around” and added
to the sum.
– Example: Using one’s
complement binary arithmetic,
find the sum of 48 and - 19
We note that 19 in one’s complement is 00010011, so -19 in one’s complement is:
11101100.
43
• Although the “end carry around” adds some

complexity, one’s complement is simpler to
implement than signed magnitude.
• But it still has the disadvantage of having two
different representations for zero: positive
zero and negative zero.
• Two’s complement solves this problem.
• Two’s complement is the radix complement of
the binary numbering system.
44
• To express a value in two’s complement:

– If the number is positive, just convert it to binary and
you’re done.
– If the number is negative, find the one’s complement of
the number and then add 1.
• Example:
– In 8-bit one’s complement, positive 3 is: 00000011
– Negative 3 in one’s complement is: 11111100
– Adding 1 gives us -3 in two’s complement form: 11111101.
45
• With two’s complement arithmetic, all we do is add

our two binary numbers. Just discard any carries
emitting from the high order bit.
– Example: Using one’s complement binary
arithmetic, find the sum of 48 and - 19.
We note that 19 in one’s complement is: 00010011, so -19 in one’s complement is:
11101100,
and -19 in two’s complement is: 11101101.
46
• When we use any finite number of bits to

represent a number, we always run the risk of
the result of our calculations becoming too large
to be stored in the computer.
• While we can’t always prevent overflow, we can
always detect overflow.
• In complement arithmetic, an overflow condition
is easy to detect.
47
• Example:
– Using two’s complement binary
and 46.
• We see that the nonzero carry
from the seventh bit overflows into
the sign bit, giving us the
erroneous result: 107 + 46 = -103.
Rule for detecting two’s complement overflow: When the “carry in” and the “carry out” of the sign bit differ,
overflow has occurred.
48
2.5 Floating-Point Representation
• The signed magnitude, one’s complement,

and two’s complement representation that we
have just presented deal with integer values
only.
• Without modification, these formats are not
useful in scientific or business applications
that deal with real number values.
• Floating-point representation solves this
problem.
49
• If we are clever programmers, we can perform

floating-point calculations using any integer format.
• This is called floating-point emulation, because
floating point values aren’t stored as such, we just
create programs that make it seem as if floating-
point values are being used.
• Most of today’s computers are equipped with
specialized hardware that performs floating-point
arithmetic with no special programming required.
50
• Floating-point numbers allow an arbitrary

number of decimal places to the right of the
decimal point.
– For example: 0.5  0.25 = 0.125
• They are often expressed in scientific notation.
– For example:
0.125 = 1.25  10-1
5,000,000 = 5.0  106
51
• Computers use a form of scientific notation for

floating-point representation
• Numbers written in scientific notation have three
components:
52
• Computer representation of a floating-point

number consists of three fixed-size fields:
• This is the standard arrangement of these fields.
53
• The one-bit sign field is the sign of the stored value.

• The size of the exponent field, determines the
range of values that can be represented.
• The size of the significand determines the precision
of the representation.
54
• The IEEE-754 single precision floating point

standard uses an 8-bit exponent and a 23-bit
significand.
• The IEEE-754 double precision standard uses an
11-bit exponent and a 52-bit significand.
For illustrative purposes, we will use a 14-bit model with a 5-bit exponent and an 8-bit
significand.
55
• The significand of a floating-point number is always

preceded by an implied binary point.
• Thus, the significand always contains a fractional
binary value.
• The exponent indicates the power of 2 to which the
significand is raised.
56
• Example:
– Express 3210 in the simplified 14-bit floating-point
model.
• We know that 32 is 25. So in (binary) scientific
notation 32 = 1.0 x 25 = 0.1 x 26.
• Using this information, we put 110 (= 610) in the
exponent field and 1 in the significand as shown.
57
• The illustrations shown

at the right are all
equivalent
representations for 32
using our simplified
model.
• Not only do these
synonymous
representations waste
space, but they can also
cause confusion.
58
• Another problem with our system is that we have

made no allowances for negative exponents. We
have no way to express 0.5 (=2 -1)! (Notice that
there is no sign in the exponent field!)
All of these problems can be fixed with no changes to our basic model.
59
• To resolve the problem of synonymous forms,

we will establish a rule that the first digit of the
significand must be 1. This results in a unique
pattern for each floating-point number.
– In the IEEE-754 standard, this 1 is implied
meaning that a 1 is assumed after the binary
point.
– By using an implied 1, we increase the
precision of the representation by a power of
In our simple instructional model, we will use no implied bits.
two. (Why?)
60
• To provide for negative exponents, we will use a

biased exponent.
• A bias is a number that is approximately midway
in the range of values expressible by the
exponent. We subtract the bias from the value
in the exponent to determine its true value.
– In our case, we have a 5-bit exponent. We will
use 16 for our bias. This is called excess-16
representation.
• In our model, exponent values less than 16 are
negative, representing fractional numbers.
61
• Example:
– Express 3210 in the revised 14-bit floating-point model.
• We know that 32 = 1.0 x 25 = 0.1 x 26.
• To use our excess 16 biased exponent, we add 16 to
6, giving 2210 (=101102).
• Graphically:
62
• Example:
– Express 0.062510 in the revised 14-bit floating-point
model.
• We know that 0.0625 is 2-4. So in (binary) scientific
notation 0.0625 = 1.0 x 2-4 = 0.1 x 2 -3.
-3, giving 1310 (=011012).
63
• Example:
– Express -26.62510 in the revised 14-bit floating-point
model.
• We find 26.62510 = 11010.1012. Normalizing, we have:
26.62510 = 0.11010101 x 2 5.
5, giving 2110 (=101012). We also need a 1 in the sign
bit.
64
• The IEEE-754 single precision floating point

standard uses bias of 127 over its 8-bit exponent.
– An exponent of 255 indicates a special value.
• If the significand is zero, the value is  infinity.
• If the significand is nonzero, the value is NaN, “not a
number,” often used to flag an error condition.
• The double precision standard has a bias of 1023
over its 11-bit exponent.
– The “special” exponent value for a double precision number
is 2047, instead of the 255 used by the single precision
standard.
65
• Both the 14-bit model that we have presented and

the IEEE-754 floating point standard allow two
representations for zero.
– Zero is indicated by all zeros in the exponent and the
significand, but the sign bit can be either 0 or 1.
• This is why programmers should avoid testing a
floating-point value for equality to zero.
– Negative zero does not equal positive zero.
66
• Floating-point addition and subtraction are done

using methods analogous to how we perform
calculations using pencil and paper.
• The first thing that we do is express both
operands in the same exponential power, then
add the numbers, preserving the exponent in the
sum.
• If the exponent requires adjustment, we do so at
the end of the calculation.
67
• Example:
– Find the sum of 1210 and 1.2510 using the 14-bit floating-
point model.
• We find 1210 = 0.1100 x 2 4. And 1.2510 = 0.101 x 2 1 =
0.000101 x 2 4.
• Thus, our sum is 0.110101 x 2 4.
68
• Floating-point multiplication is also carried out in

a manner akin to how we perform multiplication
using pencil and paper.
• We multiply the two operands and add their
exponents.
• If the exponent requires adjustment, we do so at
the end of the calculation.
69
• Example:
– Find the product of 1210 and 1.2510 using the 14-bit
floating-point model.
• We find 1210 = 0.1100 x 2 4. And 1.2510 = 0.101 x 2 1.
• Thus, our product is 0.0111100 x 2
5 = 0.1111 x 2 4.
• The normalized product requires
an exponent of 20 = 10110 .
10 2
70
• No matter how many bits we use in a floating-point

representation, our model must be finite.
• The real number system is, of course, infinite, so our
models can give nothing more than an
approximation of a real value.
• At some point, every model breaks down,
introducing errors into our calculations.
• By using a greater number of bits in our model, we
can reduce these errors, but we can never totally
eliminate them.
71
• Our job becomes one of reducing error, or at least

being aware of the possible magnitude of error in our
calculations.
• We must also be aware that errors can compound
through repetitive arithmetic operations.
• For example, our 14-bit model cannot exactly
represent the decimal value 128.5. In binary, it is 9
bits wide:
10000000.12 = 128.510
72
• When we try to express 128.510 in our 14-bit model,

we lose the low-order bit, giving a relative error of:
128.5 - 128
 0.39%
128
• If we had a procedure that repetitively added 0.5 to
128.5, we would have an error of nearly 2% after only
four iterations.
73
• Floating-point errors can be reduced when we use

operands that are similar in magnitude.
• If we were repetitively adding 0.5 to 128.5, it would
have been better to iteratively add 0.5 to itself and
then add 128.5 to this sum.
• In this example, the error was caused by loss of the
low-order bit.
• Loss of the high-order bit is more problematic.
74
• Floating-point overflow and underflow can cause

programs to crash.
• Overflow occurs when there is no room to store
the high-order bits resulting from a calculation.
• Underflow occurs when a value is too small to
store, possibly resulting in division by zero.
Experienced programmers know that it’s better for a program to crash than to have it produce incorrect,
but plausible, results.
75
2.6 Character Codes
• Calculations aren’t useful until their results can

be displayed in a manner that is meaningful to
people.
• We also need to store the results of calculations,
and provide a means for data input.
• Thus, human-understandable characters must be
converted to computer-understandable bit
patterns using some sort of character encoding
scheme.
76
2.6 Character Codes
• As computers have evolved, character codes

have evolved.
• Larger computer memories and storage
devices permit richer character codes.
• The earliest computer coding systems used six
bits.
• Binary-coded decimal (BCD) was one of these
early codes. It was used by IBM mainframes in
the 1950s and 1960s.
77
2.6 Character Codes
• In 1964, BCD was extended to an 8-bit code,

Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange
Code (EBCDIC).
• EBCDIC was one of the first widely-used
computer codes that supported upper and
lowercase alphabetic characters, in addition to
special characters, such as punctuation and
control characters.
• EBCDIC and BCD are still in use by IBM
mainframes today.
78
2.6 Character Codes
• Other computer manufacturers chose the 7-bit

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) as a replacement for 6-bit codes.
• While BCD and EBCDIC were based upon
punched card codes, ASCII was based upon
telecommunications (Telex) codes.
• Until recently, ASCII was the dominant
character code outside the IBM mainframe
world.
79
2.6 Character Codes
• Many of today’s systems embrace Unicode, a 16-

bit system that can encode the characters of
every language in the world.
– The Java programming language, and some operating
systems now use Unicode as their default character
code.
• The Unicode codespace is divided into six parts.
The first part is for Western alphabet codes,
including English, Greek, and Russian.
80
2.6 Character Codes
• The Unicode codes-

pace allocation is
shown at the right.
• The lowest-numbered
Unicode characters
comprise the ASCII
code.
• The highest provide
for user-defined
codes.
81
2.7 Codes for Data Recording
And Transmission
• When character codes or numeric values are stored
in computer memory, their values are unambiguous.
• This is not always the case when data is stored on
magnetic disk or transmitted over a distance of more
than a few feet.
– Owing to the physical irregularities of data storage and
transmission media, bytes can become garbled.
• Data errors are reduced by use of suitable coding
methods as well as through the use of various error-
detection techniques.
82
And Transmission
• To transmit data, pulses of “high” and “low” voltage
are sent across communications media.
• To store data, changes are induced in the magnetic
polarity of the recording medium.
– These polarity changes are called flux reversals.
• The period of time during which a bit is transmitted,
or the area of magnetic storage within which a bit is
stored is called a bit cell.
83
And Transmission
• The simplest data recording and transmission
code is the non-return-to-zero (NRZ) code.
• NRZ encodes 1 as “high” and 0 as “low.”
• The coding of OK (in ASCII) is shown below.
84
And Transmission
• The problem with NRZ code is that long strings of
zeros and ones cause synchronization loss.
• Non-return-to-zero-invert (NRZI) reduces this
synchronization loss by providing a transition (either
low-to-high or high-to-low) for each binary 1.
85
And Transmission
• Although it prevents loss of synchronization over long
strings of binary ones, NRZI coding does nothing to
prevent synchronization loss within long strings of
zeros.
• Manchester coding (also known as phase modulation)
prevents this problem by encoding a binary one with
an “up” transition and a binary zero with a “down”
transition.
86
And Transmission
• For many years, Manchester code was the dominant
transmission code for local area networks.
• It is, however, wasteful of communications capacity
because there is a transition on every bit cell.
• A more efficient coding method is based upon the
frequency modulation (FM) code. In FM, a transition is
provided at each cell boundary. Cells containing
binary ones have a mid-cell transition.
87
And Transmission
• At first glance, FM is worse than Manchester code,
because it requires a transition at each cell boundary.
• If we can eliminate some of these transitions, we would
have a more economical code.
• Modified FM does just this. It provides a cell boundary
transition only when adjacent cells contain zeros.
• An MFM cell containing a binary one has a transition in
the middle as in regular FM.
88
And Transmission
• The main challenge for data recording and trans-
mission is how to retain synchronization without
chewing up more resources than necessary.
• Run-length-limited, RLL, is a code specifically
designed to reduce the number of consecutive
ones and zeros.
– Some extra bits are inserted into the code.
– But even with these extra bits RLL is remarkably
efficient.
89
And Transmission
• An RLL(d,k) code dictates a minimum of d and a
maximum of k consecutive zeros between any pair
of consecutive ones.
– RLL(2,7) has been the dominant disk storage coding
method for many years.
• An RLL(2,7) code contains more bit cells than its
corresponding ASCII or EBCDIC character.
• However, the coding method allows bit cells to be
smaller, thus closer together, than in MFM or any
other code.
90
And Transmission
• The RLL(2,7) coding for OK is shown below,
compared to MFM. The RLL code (bottom)
contains 25% fewer transitions than the MFM
code (top).
The details as to how this code is derived are given in the text.
91
2.8 Error Detection and Correction
• It is physically impossible for any data recording or

transmission medium to be 100% perfect 100% of
the time over its entire expected useful life.
• As more bits are packed onto a square centimeter of
disk storage, as communications transmission
speeds increase, the likelihood of error increases--
sometimes geometrically.
• Thus, error detection and correction is critical to
accurate data transmission, storage and retrieval.
92
• Check digits, appended to the end of a long number

can provide some protection against data input
errors.
– The last character of UPC barcodes and ISBNs are check
digits.
• Longer data streams require more economical and
sophisticated error detection mechanisms.
• Cyclic redundancy checking (CRC) codes provide
error detection for large blocks of data.
93
• Checksums and CRCs are examples of systematic

error detection.
• In systematic error detection a group of error control
bits is appended to the end of the block of
transmitted data.
– This group of bits is called a syndrome.
• CRCs are polynomials over the modulo 2 arithmetic
field.
The mathematical theory behind modulo 2 polynomials is beyond our scope. However, we can
easily work with it without knowing its theoretical underpinnings.
94
• Modulo 2 arithmetic works like clock arithmetic.

• In clock arithmetic, if we add 2 hours to 11:00, we
get 1:00.
• In modulo 2 arithmetic if we add 1 to 1, we get 0.
The addition rules couldn’t be simpler:
0+0=0 0+1=1
1+0=1 1+1=0
You will fully understand why modulo 2 arithmetic is so handy after you study digital circuits in
Chapter 3.
95
• Find the quotient and

remainder when 1111101 is
divided by 1101 in modulo 2
arithmetic.
– As with traditional
division, we note that the
dividend is divisible once
by the divisor.
– We place the divisor
under the dividend and
perform modulo 2
subtraction. 96

arithmetic…
– Now we bring down the
next bit of the dividend.
– We see that 00101 is not
divisible by 1101. So we
place a zero in the
quotient.
97

arithmetic…
– 1010 is divisible by 1101
in modulo 2.
– We perform the modulo 2
subtraction.
98

arithmetic…
– We find the quotient is
1011, and the remainder is
0010.
• This procedure is very useful
to us in calculating CRC
syndromes.
Note: The divisor in this example corresponds to a modulo 2 polynomial: X 3 +
X 2 + 1.
99
• Suppose we want to transmit the

information string: 1111101.
• The receiver and sender decide to
use the (arbitrary) polynomial
pattern, 1101.
• The information string is shifted
left by one position less than the
number of positions in the divisor.
• The remainder is found through
modulo 2 division (at right) and
added to the information string:
1111101000 + 111 = 1111101111.
100
• If no bits are lost or corrupted,

dividing the received
information string by the
agreed upon pattern will give a
remainder of zero.
• We see this is so in the
calculation at the right.
• Real applications use longer
polynomials to cover larger
information strings.
– Some of the standard poly-
nomials are listed in the text.
101
• Data transmission errors are easy to fix once an error

is detected.
– Just ask the sender to transmit the data again.
• In computer memory and data storage, however, this
cannot be done.
– Too often the only copy of something important is in
memory or on disk.
• Thus, to provide data integrity over the long term,
error correcting codes are required.
102
• Hamming codes and Reed-Soloman codes are two

important error correcting codes.
• Reed-Soloman codes are particularly useful in
correcting burst errors that occur when a series of
adjacent bits are damaged.
– Because CD-ROMs are easily scratched, they employ a type
of Reed-Soloman error correction.
• Because the mathematics of Hamming codes is
much simpler than Reed-Soloman, we discuss
Hamming codes in detail.
103
• Hamming codes are code words formed by adding

redundant check bits, or parity bits, to a data word.
• The Hamming distance between two code words is
the number of bits in which two code words differ.
This pair of bytes has a Hamming distance of
3:
• The minimum Hamming distance for a code is the

smallest Hamming distance between all pairs of
words in the code.
104
• The minimum Hamming distance for a code,

D(min), determines its error detecting and error
correcting capability.
• For any code word, X, to be interpreted as a
different valid code word, Y, at least D(min)
single-bit errors must occur in X.
• Thus, to detect k (or fewer) single-bit errors, the
code must have a Hamming distance of
D(min) = k + 1.
105
• Hamming codes can detect D(min) - 1 errors

and correct errors
• Thus, a Hamming distance of 2k + 1 is

required to be able to correct k errors in any
data word.
• Hamming distance is provided by adding a
suitable number of parity bits to a data word.
106
• Suppose we have a set of n-bit code words

consisting of m data bits and r (redundant) parity
bits.
• An error could occur in any of the n bits, so each
code word can be associated with n erroneous
words at a Hamming distance of 1.
• Therefore,we have n + 1 bit patterns for each
code word: one valid code word, and n
erroneous words.
107
• With n-bit code words, we have 2 n possible code

words consisting of 2 m data bits (where m = n + r).
• This gives us the inequality:
(n + 1)  2 m  2 n
• Because m = n + r, we can rewrite the inequality
as:
(m + r + 1)  2 m  2 m + r or (m + r + 1)  2 r
– This inequality gives us a lower limit on the number of
check bits that we need in our code words.
108
• Suppose we have data words of length m = 4.

Then:
(4 + r + 1)  2 r
implies that r must be greater than or equal to 3.
• This means to build a code with 4-bit data words
that will correct single-bit errors, we must add 3
check bits.
• Finding the number of check bits is the hard part.
The rest is easy.
109
• Suppose we have data words of length m = 8.

Then:
(8 + r + 1)  2 r
implies that r must be greater than or equal to 4.
• This means to build a code with 8-bit data words
that will correct single-bit errors, we must add 4
check bits, creating code words of length 12.
• So how do we assign values to these check
bits?
110
• With code words of length 12, we observe that each

of the digits, 1 though 12, can be expressed in
powers of 2. Thus:
1 = 20 5 = 22 + 2 0 9 = 23 + 2 0
2 = 21 6 = 22 + 2 1 10 = 2 3 + 2 1
3 = 21+ 2 0 7 = 22 + 21 + 2 0 11 = 2 3 + 2 1 + 2 0
4 = 2 28 = 2 3 12 = 2 3 + 2 2
– 1 (= 20) contributes to all of the odd-numbered digits.
– 2 (= 21) contributes to the digits, 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, and 11.
– . . . And so forth . . .
• We can use this idea in the creation of our check bits.
111
• Using our code words of length 12, number each

bit position starting with 1 in the low-order bit.
• Each bit position corresponding to an even
power of 2 will be occupied by a check bit.
• These check bits contain the parity of each bit
position for which it participates in the sum.
112
• Since 2 (= 21) contributes to the digits, 2, 3, 6, 7, 10,

and 11. Position 2 will contain the parity for bits 3, 6,
7, 10, and 11.
• When we use even parity, this is the modulo 2 sum
of the participating bit values.
• For the bit values shown, we have a parity value of
0 in the second bit position.
What are the values for the other parity bits?
113
• The completed code word is shown above.

– Bit 1checks the digits, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11, so its value is
1.
– Bit 4 checks the digits, 5, 6, 7, and 12, so its value is 1.
– Bit 8 checks the digits, 9, 10, 11, and 12, so its value is
also 1.
• Using the Hamming algorithm, we can not only
detect single bit errors in this code word, but also
correct them!
114
• Suppose an error occurs in bit 5, as shown above.

Our parity bit values are:
– Bit 1 checks digits, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11. Its value is 1, but
should be zero.
– Bit 2 checks digits 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, and 11. The zero is
correct.
– Bit 4 checks digits, 5, 6, 7, and 12. Its value is 1, but
should be zero.
– Bit 8 checks digits, 9, 10, 11, and 12. This bit is correct.
115
• We have erroneous bits in positions 1 and 4.

• With two parity bits that don’t check, we know that
the error is in the data, and not in a parity bit.
• Which data bits are in error? We find out by
adding the bit positions of the erroneous bits.
• Simply, 1 + 4 = 5. This tells us that the error is in
bit 5. If we change bit 5 to a 1, all parity bits check
and our data is restored.
116
Chapter 2 Conclusion
• Computers store data in the form of bits, bytes,

and words using the binary numbering system.
• Hexadecimal numbers are formed using four-bit
groups called nibbles (or nybbles).
• Signed integers can be stored in one’s
complement, two’s complement, or signed
magnitude representation.
• Floating-point numbers are usually coded using
the IEEE 754 floating-point standard.
117
Chapter 2 Conclusion
• Character data is stored using ASCII, EBCDIC,

or Unicode.
• Data transmission and storage codes are
devised to convey or store bytes reliably and
economically.
• Error detecting and correcting codes are
necessary because we can expect no
transmission or storage medium to be perfect.
• CRC, Reed-Soloman, and Hamming codes are
three important error control codes.
118
End of Chapter 2
119

Chapter 2 Data Representation

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Chapter 2 Data Representation

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Chapter 2

• Understand the fundamentals of numerical data

• Gain familiarity with the most popular character

• A bit is the most basic unit of information in a

• A word is a contiguous group of bytes.

• Bytes store numbers when the position of each bit

• The decimal number 947 in powers of 10 is:

• The decimal number 5836.47 in powers of 10 is:

• The binary number 11001 in powers of 2 is:

• When the radix of a number is something other

• Because binary numbers are the basis for all data

• In a previous slide, we said that every integer

• Suppose we want to convert

• Converting 190 to base 3...

carry down the 1.

• Converting 190 to base 3...

• Another method of converting integers from

• Converting 190 to base 3...

• Converting 190 to base 3...

• Converting 190 to base 3...

• Fractional values can be approximated in all

• Fractional decimal values have nonzero digits to

• As with whole-number conversions, you can use

• The calculation to the

• Using the multiplication

• Converting 0.8125 to binary . . .

• Converting 0.8125 to binary . . .

target radix as the

• The binary numbering system is the most

• The hexadecimal numbering system uses the

• Using groups of hextets, the binary number

• Octal (base 8) values are derived from binary by

Octal was very useful when computers used six-bit words.

• The conversions we have so far presented have

• There are three ways in which signed binary

• For example, in 8-bit signed magnitude,

• Binary addition is as easy as it gets. You need

that is not the case, we have a problem.

• The signs in signed

negative sign when we are done.

• Mixed sign addition (or

– Note the “borrows” from the second and sixth bits.

• Signed magnitude representation is easy for

• In complement systems, negative values are

• For example, in 8-bit one’s complement,

• With one’s complement

• Although the “end carry around” adds some

• To express a value in two’s complement:

• With two’s complement arithmetic, all we do is add

arithmetic, find the sum of 48 and - 19.

and -19 in two’s complement is: 11101101.

• When we use any finite number of bits to

overflow has occurred.

• The signed magnitude, one’s complement,

• If we are clever programmers, we can perform

• Floating-point numbers allow an arbitrary

• Computers use a form of scientific notation for

• Computer representation of a floating-point

• This is the standard arrangement of these fields.

• The one-bit sign field is the sign of the stored value.

• The IEEE-754 single precision floating point

• The significand of a floating-point number is always

• The illustrations shown

• Another problem with our system is that we have

• To resolve the problem of synonymous forms,

• To provide for negative exponents, we will use a

• The IEEE-754 single precision floating point

• Both the 14-bit model that we have presented and

• Floating-point addition and subtraction are done

• Floating-point multiplication is also carried out in

• The normalized product requires

• No matter how many bits we use in a floating-point

• Our job becomes one of reducing error, or at least

• When we try to express 128.510 in our 14-bit model,

• Floating-point errors can be reduced when we use

• Floating-point overflow and underflow can cause