06 Language Variation

EXFAC03-AAS v11
Language
 6: Language variation
Steve Pepper <pepper.steve@gmail.com>

Course contents
1. Universals
2. Typology
3. Language families
4. Language contact
5. Language death
6. Language variation
2> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

Language variation
 Topics
● Terminology
– Linguistic item and language variety
● Geographical variation
– Language vs. dialect, dialect continuum, isogloss
● Social variation
– Sociolect, slang, jargon
● Contextual variation
● Language policy

Language variation
 Languages vary
● from one place to another, Prestige
● from one social group to another, and Standard
● from one situation to another Dialect
 Today’s topics are therefore

● geographical variation
● social variation Social
● contextual variation
 Variation has political implications, so we
Fu
also discuss language policy n cti
on l
al na
● Two examples Regio
– Cameroon and Korea

The Three Dimensions of
 These topics are the domain of Variation
sosiolinguistics

How do you pronounce ‘H’?
 The changing sound of
English pronunciation
● Pedants, beware!
● The sound of
– says
– ate
– mischievous
– harass
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-11642588
– garage
– schedule and
 Different accents? dialects?
– aitch (H)
sociolects? languages?
● is shifting

Some basic
terminology
 Terms like ‘language’, ‘dialect’, ‘sociolect’, ‘accent’,
‘jargon’ and ‘register’ are hard to define
 For example, defining dialect as a geographical
subdivision of a language begs the question
● What is a ‘language’?
● What do we mean by ‘subdivision’?
 More basic terms required:
● Linguistic item
● Language variety

Linguistic items
 Definition:
● Any basic unit of language
– e.g. words, sounds, grammatical constructions
 Examples of different linguistic items:
● Pronouns yous ‘2pl’ and you ‘2 sg/pl’
● Words child and bairn (N. England, Scotland)
● Phonemes /ʌ/ and /ʊ/ in /sʌn/ and /sʊn/ (‘sun’, ‘son’)
● Suffixes /ɪŋ/ og /ɪn/ in /kʌmɪŋ/ og /kʌmɪn/ (‘coming’)
● Past tense forms caught and catched (dialect)
● Grammatical constructions
Give it to me! ~ Give me it! ~ Give it me!

Language variety
 Definition:
● A set of linguistic items with similar social (including
geographical and cultural) distribution
 May refer to
● a full-fledged language or dialect
● a small set of linguistic items (e.g. slang)
● anything in between (e.g. sociolect, idiolect)

Varieties of English
(a) Standard English No one has gone to the post office yet.
(b) Jamaican Creole Nobadi no gaan a puos yet. ‘No one has gone to the post
office yet.’
(c) Southern US white Non-Standard dialect from Atlanta Nobody don’t like a
boss hardly. ‘Hardly anybody likes a boss.’
(d) Tok Pisin (New Guinea Pidgin) Papa, min bin mekim sin long God na long
yu. ‘Father, I have sinned against God and against you.’
(e) Older Standard English of the ‘King James version’ Bible Father, I have
sinned against heaven, and in thy sight.
(f) Scots, from Leith When ah wis a boy ma mither an faither died. ‘When I was a
boy my mother and father died.’
(g) Standard English & English slang Walking 5 miles to work is a real ball-
ache. ‘Walking 5 miles to work is really inconvenient.’

Varieties of English
(a) Standard English No one has gone to the post office yet.
(b) Jamaican Creole Nobadi no gaan a puos yet. ‘No one has gone to the post
office yet.’  Questions:
(c) Southern US white1. DoNon-Standard dialectthe
these varieties represent from
sameAtlanta
or Nobody don’t like a
boss hardly. ‘Hardly different
anybody languages?
likes a boss.’
2. Do these varieties represent the same or
(d) Tok Pisin (New Guinea Pidgin)
different dialectsPapa, min language?
of the same bin mekim sin long God na long
yu. ‘Father, I have sinned against God and against you.’
3. How many languages are actually represented
here? of the ‘King James version’ Bible Father, I have
(e) Older Standard English
sinned against 
heaven, andnoinunique
There are thy sight.
(“correct”) answers!
(f) Scots, from Leith When ah wis a boy ma mither an faither died. ‘When I was a
boy my mother and father died.’
(g) Standard English & English slang Walking 5 miles to work is a real ball-
ache. ‘Walking 5 miles to work is really inconvenient.’
10 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

Varieties of Arabic
(h) Chadian Spoken Arabic of Ulâd Eli ’Amm Muusa daxalat zeribt al-bagar
‘Mûsa’s mother entered the enclosure of the cows.’
(i) Moroccan Spoken Arabic Bi˘t nəkri sayyara lmuddət usbu:ʢ
‘I would like to hire a car for a week.’
(j) Standard Maltese Mart is-sultan marida afna
‘The sultan’s wife is very ill.’
(k) Standard Written Arabic Ra'aytu nāsan ayra sukkāni Makkata
‘I saw people who were not the inhabitants of Mecca.’

Varieties of Arabic
(h) Chadian Spoken Arabic of Ulâd Eli ’Amm Muusa daxalat zeribt al-bagar
 Again:
‘Mûsa’s mother entered the enclosure of the cows.’
1. One language or more than one?
(i) Moroccan Spoken Arabic Bi˘t nəkri sayyara lmuddət usbu:ʢ
2. If more than one, then how many?
‘I would like to hire a car for a week.’
 N.B. Standard Written Arabic may be
(j) Standard Maltese Mart is-sultan
divided intomarida afnadifferent forms
at last two
‘The sultan’s wife is very ill.’
● Classical Arabic
(k) Standard Written Arabic Ra'aytu
● Modern nāsanArabic
Literary ayra sukkāni Makkata
‘I saw people who were not the inhabitants of Mecca.’
 We have chosen variants of ? Norwegian ↔ Swedish

English and Arabic ? Hindi ↔ Urdu
 We could have compared many ? Bosnian ↔ Serbian ↔ Croatian
other “languages” ? Mandarin ↔ Cantonese

Geographical variation
 Topics
● Language vs. dialect
● Dialect continuum
● Isoglosses
● Abstand languages and
Ausbau languages
● Standard languages

The example of Fula
 A Niger-Congo language
● Spoken in 17 countries
● Mostly in West Africa, especially
the Sahel
● Mauritania and Senegal in the
west, through Guinea, Mali,
Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria,
Cameroon, Chad, and
neighbouring areas Dialect
 Not geographically continuous “A geographical variety of a
language, spoken in a
● Interrupted by many areas with certain area, and different in
hundreds of other languages some linguistic items from
 Generally assumed to be a single other geographical varieties
of the same
language with a number of language.”
different dialects
Proposed definitions
of ‘language’
 This is a common definition of ‘dialect’ used among linguists
● Different from the “popular” notion of a dialect being a
provincial variant of the “proper” language
 Problematic because it presupposes a satisfactory definition of ‘language’
1. “A language consists of speech varieties that Norwegian  Swedish

are mutually intelligible” Mandarin  Cantonese
2. “A language consists of speech varieties that Norwegian  Swedish

are considered subordinate to the same Mandarin  Cantonese (? possibly)
standard variety” Most ‘languages’ have no standard variety
3. “A language consists of speech varieties in (Depending on what ‘large’ means)

which a large percentage of words are Norwegian  Swedish
etymologically related” Mandarin  Cantonese (? probably)

Dialects of Fula
 Different Fula-speaking areas can be referred to
as dialect areas
 Between ten and fifteen major dialects; most
important:
1. Northern Senegal, Southern Mauritania
2. Guinea
3. Mali
4. Burkina Faso, Western Nigeria, Western Niger
5. Central Nigeria
6. Eastern Nigeria, Northern Cameroon
 Speakers from neighbouring areas can
communicate without problems
● Each speaks his/her own native variety
 But speakers from one end of West Africa
have problems communicating with speakers
from the other end
● Abilities vary from person to person depending on
degree of exposure to other dialects

Dialect continuum
 A dialect continuum is a chain of dialects, let us say dialects A–H:
● Speakers of dialects A and B understand each other extremely well
● The same applies to B and C, to C and D, etc.
● Speakers of A and C understand each other rather less well
● Speakers of dialect A and dialect E less well again
 There comes to a point, say at dialect G, where dialect A is no longer
intelligible to the local people and vice versa.
? 
 ()   
A B C D E F G H
  
“The Rhenish Fan”
Isoglosses
 Dialects can be mapped using isoglosses
● Lines on a map mark the boundary between different linguistic
items
● Usually no clear boundary between dialects
 The Rhenish Fan in Germany
● Varieties: Low, Middle and High German
● Linguistic items: ‘ik~ich’, ‘Dorp~Dorf’, ‘dat~das’
‘I’ ‘make’ ‘village’ ‘that’ ‘apple’ ‘pound’

ik maken dorp dat appel pund
German
Low
ich maken dorp dat appel pund
ich machen dorp dat appel pund

German
ich machen dorf dat appel pund

Middle
ich machen dorf das appel pund

ich machen dorf das apfel pund
Hig
Ger
ich machen dorf das apfel pfund

m

Abstand languages
and Ausbau languages
 Abstand language  Ausbau languages arise out of situations
● = “Language by distance” with a dialect continuum
● Regarded as a language by dint of its ● One dialectal variety  standard
linguistic distance from other languages – Usually the variety used by educated people in
the capital
● e.g. Basque, Korean
– Autonomous with respect to other dialects
 Ausbau language – Other dialects are heteronomous with respect
● = “Language by development” to the standard
● Regarded as a language by dint of its  Status can change over time
autonomy with respect to related ● Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian formerly
languages heteronomous dialects of Serbo-Croatian
– Standardized form
– Since 1990s autonomous languages
– Used in schools
● Scots, Plattdeutsch (Low German),
– Written form widely used (including as
Provençal once autonomous
official national or regional language)
– Now heteronomous with respect to English,
● e.g. (standard) Dutch and German German and French

Standard languages
 Prototypical properties of a standard  Standard varieties rise and fall
language ● Reverse of standardization is
● Used by educated users dialectization
– e.g. in the professions, the media, etc. – Okinawan once the standard language of the
Ryukyuan kingdom: Now usually seen as a
● Defined in dictionaries, grammars, and dialect of Japanese
usage guides.
● Regarded as more correct and socially  Not all languages have a standard
acceptable variety
● Enjoys greater prestige ● May be an Abstand language without
– Non-standard varieties felt to be the being an Ausbau language
province of the less educated ● Usual case for minority languages
● Used as a written language – Found within a larger nation state
● Used in important functions in the – Only used in private (e.g. at home)
society
 A language may be Ausbau despite little
– Government, parliament, courts, trade,
bureaucracy, education, literature, industry
Abstand from its relatives
● e.g. Danish, Norwegian, Swedish
The last word on
language vs. dialect?
 ‫ַא שּפרַאך איז ַא דיַאלעקט מיט ַאן ַארמיי און ֿפלָאט‬
 A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot
 A language is a dialect with an army and navy
● Usually attributed A teacher at a Bronx high school once appeared among the
to Max Weinreich auditors. He had come to America as a child and the entire time
had never heard that Yiddish had a history and could also serve
for higher matters.... Once after a lecture he approached me and
asked, ‘What is the difference between a dialect and language?’
I thought that the maskilic contempt had affected him, and tried
to lead him to the right path, but he interrupted me: ‘I know that,
but I will give you a better definition. A language is a dialect with
an army and navy.’ From that very time I made sure to
remember that I must convey this wonderful formulation of the
social plight
of Yiddish to a large audience.
See also Romania/Moldova: Divided By A Common Language: http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1079514.html
Social variation
 Geographic distance leads to
language variation
 Social distance also leads to
language variation
 Topics
● Social organization
– Social networks
– Social stratification
● Sociolect
● Slang
● Jargon

Social networks
 Individual belongs to social  Network strength based on
networks degrees of density and
● Stronger and looser ties with multiplexity
other individuals  Dense network
● Dimensions of solidarity ● Everyone knows everyone
between individuals in their else
everyday contacts
 Multiplex relationship
 Strong networks
– A interacts with B in more
● Language changes more than one capacity (e.g. as
slowly workmate and friend)
● Stigmatized and low-status
language items persist

Social stratification
 Hierarchical structure of a  Rank society
society ● People born with certain rank,
● Arising from inequalities of low social mobility
wealth and power ● Speak language of birth
 Different types of hierarchy throughout life
● Rank society  Class society
● Class society ● People born into certain class,
high social mobility
 Europe after ca. 1800
● Change their language in
● Change from hierarchy of order to improve social status
rank to hierarchy of class

From rank to class
 Traditional European rank society
● People spoke the dialect of their home area
● Only minor variation between the ranks
● Easy to locate someone geographically, but not socially
 Change to class society
● Ca. 1800: industrialization
● New social strata:
– Working class and bourgeoisie (middle class)
● Opportunities to improve economic and social status

The emergence of
middle class English
 England, end of 18th century  Network differences an important
● Standard written language, no factor
standard spoken language ● Close-knit solidarity characteristic of
 Middle class speaking habits lower and higher social groups
changed towards most – Leads to greater stability
prestigious variety ● Weaker among middle sectors of

society
● Used at royal court in London
– Easier to change
● Upper class (aristocracy) and
lower class continue to speak  Network structures result naturally
local dialect from different life modes
● Middle class dialect varied much ● e.g. self-employed, wage-earners,
less from place to place professionals

Sociolects
 Language varieties used by particular societal strata
 Most language varieties have geographical as well as
social distribution
 Geographical variation now larger among lower classes
than middle and upper classes

Huntin’, shootin’
and fishin’
 The story of English -ing
 Originally two suffixes
● Verbal noun [-ɪŋe], written <-inge>
– e.g. ‘writinge’ cf. NOR skriving
● Present participle [-ɪnde], written <‑inde>
– e.g. ‘writinde’ cf. NOR skrivende
 Erosion  neutralization
-ɪŋe -ɪŋ
-ɪn
-ɪnde -ɪnd
● pronounced [-ɪn], written <-ing>
Three in Norway is an account of a “huntin’,
● Middle class  [-ɪŋ] (conform to standard)
shootin’ and fishin’” trip to Jotunheimen in
● Upper and lower class retained [-ɪn] Norway by three English (actually two
– Hence the phrase huntin’, shootin’ and fishin’ English and one Irish) gentlemen in 1882
– Descriptive of upper class pastimes
Slang
 Very informal language variety
● Includes new and sometimes not polite words
British slang (http://www.peevish.co.uk/slang/)
and meanings… kerb crawler Noun. A person who drives
 Often used among particular groups of slowly to view street prostitutes, with the
people intention of procuring their services.
● e.g. teenagers or professional groups {Informal}.
● Not commonly used in serious speech or khyber (pass) Noun. Buttocks, anus. Cockney
writing
rhyming slang on ‘arse’.
 Some expressions contain ordinary words
with a special meaning kiddie fiddler Noun. A paedophile. Derog.
● e.g. khyber, kisser and knocking kipper Noun. The face. E.g. “Did you see the
● New meanings, often based upon fanciful and miserable kipper on that idiot stood at the
creative metaphors and metonymies back?” [Liverpool/North-west use.]
– e.g. Cockney rhyming slang
kisser Noun. Mouth. Origins in boxing.
 Other expressions contain special words
with no «non-slang» meanings knocking shop Noun. A brothel.
● e.g. kooky kooky Adj. Crazy, eccentric.

Jargon
 A set of vocabulary items used by guddiri ‘bull without a tail’
members of particular professions wudde ‘cow without a tail’
● i.e. their technical terms jaabuye ‘cow with a large navel’
lelwaaye ‘cattle with eyes like a gazelle’
 Linguists have a large vocabulary that gerlaaye ‘cattle that is like a bush-fowl’
is not well understood by happuye ‘cow in milk after her calf has died’
non‑linguists mbutuye ‘cow whose calf has been killed so that she may
● (ref. these lectures...) be fattened’
elliinge ‘cattle with upright horns’
 Other typical examples
gajje ‘cattle with horns twisted back’ (also called mooro)
● Computer jargon hippe ‘cattle with horns drooping forward’
– scroll bar, SCSI, short cut, spam... hogole ‘cattle with horns almost meeting’
● Printers’ jargon lettooye ‘cattle with one horn up and the other drooping’
– NOR: slis, drittel, enke, horeunge... wijaaye ‘cattle with horns drooping towards the ears’
 All professions have their own tolle ‘cow with one horn’
jargons wumale ‘cow without horns’
● Farmer’s jargon
● Jargon of Fulani shepherds…
Contextual variation –
honorifics
 Contextual variation: Variation within the individual
Honorifics and politeness in Korean

 Plain level you = nŏ  Blunt level you = tangsin
● Used by any speaker to any child; own ● Authoritative connotations, gradually disappearing
younger sibling, child, or grandchild; from daily usage
daughter-in-law; intimate adult friends ● Sometimes used by a boss to subordinates or by an
whose friendship began in childhood old generation husband to wife
 Intimate level you = chane  Polite level you = kŭ-dae (obsolete), taek
● Close friends whose friendship began in ● Most popular level towards an adult, used by both
childhood or adolescence males and females in daily conversations
 Familiar level you = chagi ● Less formal than the deferential level.
● E.g. male adult to adolescent (high school  Deferential level you = ŏrŭsin (rare)
or college student); one’s son-in-law;
● Used in formal situations such as news reports and
between close adult friends whose
friendship began in adolescence public lectures

Language policy
 The language situation varies enormously from country to country
 We look here at two very contrasting countries
 Cameroon  Korea
● Languages: 280 ● Languages: 1

A linguistic thought
experiment
Imagine the following situation. You live in a When you were in school, the only language
small town called Speechville. Your mother you were taught was Japanese. You had a
tongue is German, and this language is spoken by teacher who had recently moved to your town
your family and your closest neighbours. If you from the southern part of the country. He could
walk five minutes down the street, the language only speak two languages: Italian, which was
you hear around you is Finnish, and after another his mother tongue, and Japanese, the official
five minutes everybody speaks Russian. When language.
you want to communicate with any of these Finns When you started in school, you could only
and Russians, you address them in the local lingua speak your mother tongue, German, and the
franca, which is English. local lingua franca, English, which you used
Imagine, furthermore, that German, Finnish and when talking to your Finnish speaking
Russian are never used as written languages. playmates down the street. But the teacher
All street signs in your town are written in addressed you and the other sixty-two children
Japanese, which is the official language of your in the classroom in Japanese from the very first
country. day.
1. German Germanic Indo- 4. English Germanic Indo-

European European
2. Finnish Finno-Ugric Uralic 5. Japanese Japanese
3. Russian Slavic Indo- 6. Italian Romance Indo-
33 > European
Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) European Steve Pepper
The linguistic situation
in Cameroon
 Galim, Adamawa Province  A typical African village
● approx. 3,000 inhabitants ● 5–10 local languages
● A local lingua franca (Fula)
● A national language (French)
 Social-functional classification of
these languages
 ● LG 1: Fula
● LG 2: Hausa
● LG 3: Nizaa, Vute, Kanuri,
Mbum, Chamba
1. German
Nizaa Germanic
Mambiloid Indo- Niger- 4. English
Fula Germanic
Atlantic Indo-
Niger-Congo
2. European
Congo
Hausa Chadic Afro-Asiatic 5. European
French Romance Indo-
2.
3. Finnish
Chamba Finno-Ugric
Adamawa Uralic
Niger- 5.
6. Japanese
European
Ewondo Japanese
Bantu Niger-Congo
3. Russian
Congo Slavic Indo- 6. Italian Romance Indo-
34 > European
Patterns of
multilingualism
 Fula spoken by everybody  Social groups
● Hausa second lingua franca ● SG 1 – Upper stratum: merchants
– The only L2 for the Fulani people – High degree of intermarriage
Languages – Language(s) of this SG only
Kanur ● SG 2 – Other villagers
Ethnic groups Fula Hausa Other
i
– Own languages and those of SG 1
Sedentary Fulani L1 L2
SG1 – Often other SG 2 languages
Hausa L2 L1
Kanuri* <L1> L2 <L1> ● SG 3 – Nomadic Fulani
Nizaa, Vute, SG2 – On the fringe of village society
L2 L3 L1
Mbum, Chamba
Nomadic Fulani L1 SG3
– Own language only; low status
1. German
Nizaa Germanic
Mambiloid Indo- Niger- 4. English
Fula Germanic
Atlantic Indo-
Niger-Congo
2. European
Congo
Hausa Chadic Afro-Asiatic 5. European
French Romance Indo-
2.
3. Finnish
Chamba Finno-Ugric
Adamawa Uralic
Niger- 5.
6. Japanese
European
Ewondo Japanese
Bantu Niger-Congo
3. Russian
Congo Slavic Indo- 6. Italian Romance Indo-
35 > European
Language policy in
Cameroon and Africa
 Colonial language French adds a  “One language, one nation”
further complication ● A strictly European concept
● Official language since WW1 – No meaning in an African context
● Limited use until recently  Cameroonian nationalism is non-
– Schools, public offices linguistic
● Insufficiently understood to function ● Language regarded as a regional or
as lingua franca “separatist” affair
– Only 13% have good grounding ● Language differences ignored in order
in French from school to create national unity
OFFICIAL
● Will probably not replace Fula  Typical in most of Africa
(1)
in Northern Cameroon
– Usual language hierarchy
– In Africa, the lingua franca
tends to be an African NATIONAL ■ 1 official language
language or a pidgin (5–10) ■ 5-10 national languages
with a European ■ 10s or 100s of local languages
LOCAL
language superstrate
(10s or 100s)
The linguistic situation
in Korea
 Korean spoken in North  High literary rates
and South Korea  Own writing system (Han’gŭl)
● No linguistic minorities ● Developed in 15th C on the
● Among the few monolingual initiative of King Sejong
states in the world ● Scientifically designed alphabet
 2 standard varieties in which 2, 3 or 4 letters are
● Both regulated by national “stacked” to create syllables
language policies  E.g. ‘huchu’ (pepper)
– South Korea: Seoul dialect
● H(ᄒ)+U(ᅮ)= 후
– North Korea: Pyongyang dialect
● CH ( ᄎ ) + U ( ᅮ ) = 추
 7 regional dialects
● HU-CHU = 후 + 추 = 후추
● Some not easily mutually
intelligible
The End
Steve Pepper <pepper.steve@gmail.com>

Summary of concepts:
Universals
 Absolute, statistical and implicational universals
 Lexicon and grammar
 Form and meaning
 Phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics
 Arbitrariness, motivation, iconicity
 Double articulation (duality of patterning)

Typology
 Analytic vs. synthetic (polysynthetic)
 Agglutinative vs. flective
 Word order (SOV, SVO, VSO, etc.)
 Head-first vs. head-last
 Left-branching vs. right-branching
 Verb-framed vs. satellite-framed

Language families
 Family trees and protolanguages
 The comparative method
 Regular sound change
 Regular sound correspondences
 Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, Sino-Tibetan, Uralic

Language contact
 Borrowing
 Code-switching
 Language shift and interference
 Language death
 Superstrate and substrate languages
 Pidgins and creoles
 Linguistic areas, Sprachbund

Language variation
 Linguistic item and language variety
 Language vs. dialect
 Dialect continuum
 Isogloss
 Abstand languages and Ausbau languages
 Standard languages
 Sociolect, slag, jargon
 Multilingualism and language policy

Next week: Culture!
 Further reading on language variation
● Michael E. Brown and Sumit Ganguly (eds.) 2003. Fighting Words:
Language Policy and Ethnic Relation in Asia. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press
● Fardon, Richard and Graham Furniss. 1994. African languages,
development and the state. London: Routledge
● Ljung, Magnus. 2011. Swearing. A cross-cultural linguistic study.
Basingstoke: Palgrave
● Trudgill, Peter. 2000. Sociolinguistics: An introduction to language and
society. London : Penguin
● Trudgill, Peter and J. K. Chambers. 1998. Dialectology. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
● Vickers, Caroline H. and Sharon K. Deckert. 2011. An Introduction to
Sociolinguistics: Society and Identity. London: Continuum

06 Language Variation

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06 Language Variation

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EXFAC03-AAS v11

Steve Pepper <pepper.steve@gmail.com>

2> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

3> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

 Today’s topics are therefore

– Cameroon and Korea

4> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

5> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

6> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

7> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

8> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

9> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

10 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

11 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

 We have chosen variants of ? Norwegian ↔ Swedish

12 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

13 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

1. “A language consists of speech varieties that Norwegian  Swedish

2. “A language consists of speech varieties that Norwegian  Swedish

3. “A language consists of speech varieties in (Depending on what ‘large’ means)

15 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

16 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

‘I’ ‘make’ ‘village’ ‘that’ ‘apple’ ‘pound’

ich machen dorp dat appel pund

ich machen dorf dat appel pund

ich machen dorf das appel pund

ich machen dorf das apfel pfund

18 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

19 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

22 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

23 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

24 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

25 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

prestigious variety ● Weaker among middle sectors of

26 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

27 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

29 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

Honorifics and politeness in Korean

31 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

32 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

1. German Germanic Indo- 4. English Germanic Indo-

Steve Pepper <pepper.steve@gmail.com>

39 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

40 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

41 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

42 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

43 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

44 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

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