18CS44

MICROCONTROLLER AND
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

MODULE 3
INTRODUCTION TO
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

1
 INTRODUCTION TO
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
» An embedded system is
» An electronic/ electro-mechanical system

» Designed to perform a specific function

» A combination of both hardware and (software)

firmware .

M
» Every embedded system is unique

» Hardware as well as the firmware is highly specialized to the

application domain

» Embedded systems are becoming an

inevitable part of any product or equipment in all
fields, including
» household appliances

» Telecommunications

» medical equipment

» industrial control

» consumer products.
3
» Characteristics of Embedded Systems:
» Embedded Systems

» must be highly reliable and stable

» have minimal or no user interface

» are usually feedback oriented or reactive

» are typically designed to meet real time constraints

» limited memory and limited number of peripherals

» are typically designed for specific application or purpose

» are designed for low power consumption, as they use battery

power.

4
 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS versus
GENERAL COMPUTING SYSTEMS
General Computing System Embedded System
1. A combination of generic hardware and 1. A combination of special purpose hardware
a
embedded OS for executing a specific set of
General Purpose Operating System (GPOS) for
applications.
executing a variety of applications.
1. Applications are alterable (programmable) by 1. The firmware is pre-programmed and it is non-
the user. alterable by the end-user (there may be exceptions).
1. Performance is the key deciding factor in the 1. Application-specific requirements (like performance,
selection of the system. Always, ‘Faster is Better’. power requirements, memory usage, etc.).

1. Less/ not at all tailored towards reduced 1. Highly tailored to take advantage of the power
operating power requirements. saving modes supported by the hardware and the
operating system.

1. Need not be deterministic in execution behavior; 1. Execution behavior is deterministic for certain
response requirements are not time critical. types of embedded systems like ‘Hard
Real
MP,
CS Time’
E, VCET systems. 5
 HISTORY OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
» Embedded systems were existing even before the Information Technology
revolution.

» Initially, embedded systems were built around vacuum tube and transistor
technologies

» Embedded algorithm was developed by using low level

programming
languages.

» Advances in semiconductor and nano-technology and IT revolution gave

way to development of miniature embedded systems.

6
» Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC)

» Developed (during 1960) by MIT Instrumentation Laboratory

» For the lunar expedition

» First recognized modern embedded system.

» AGC included –

» Command Module (CM-to encircle the moon)

» Lunar Excursion Module (LEM-to go down to the moon surface and land
there safely).

» There were 16 reaction control thrusters, a descent engine, an ascent engine,

4K words of fixed memory (ROM), 256 words of erasable memory (RAM);
enhanced (during 1963) to 10K fixed and 1K erasable memory, 1.024 MHz
frequency, 11 instructions on 16-bit word logic, and an interface DSKY
(display/ keyboard). 7
» The first mass-produced embedded system was the guidance
computer,
Autonetics D-17, for the Minuteman-I missile in 1961; built using discrete
transistor logic and a hard-disk for main memory.

» The first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, was designed for calculators and other
small systems; but still required many external memory and support chips.

» First microcontroller, TMS 1000, developed in 1974 by Texas Instruments.

» It had ROM, RAM, and clock circuitry on the chip along with the processing
chip.

» In 1980, Intel introduced 8051 MCU and called it MCS-51 architecture.

» Laser and Inkjet printers emerged during 1980s

» Early 1990, cell phones having five or six DSPs and CPUs emerged.

8
 CLASSIFICATION OF
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
» Classification based on Generation:
Generation with Example Description
First Generation (1G)  8-bit microprocessor and 4-bit microcontroller like 8085 and Z80
- Digital telephone keypads was used in 1G.
- Stepper motor  Hardware circuit was simple.
 Assembly code is used for developing firmware.

Second Generation (2G)  Uses 16-bit microprocessor and 8-bit microcontroller.

- Data acquisition  They are more complex and powerful than 1G microprocessor
systems
and microcontroller.
like ADC, SCADA system
Third Generation (3G)  Uses 32-bit microprocessor and 16-bit microcontroller.
- Robotics  Domain specific processor and controllers are used.

Fourth Generation (4G)  Uses 64-bit microprocessor and 32-bit microcontroller.

- Smart phones  The concept of system on chips, multi-core processors evolved.
 Highly complex and very powerful.
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» Classification based on Complexity & Performance:

» Small-Scale Embedded Systems:

 Embedded systems which are simple in application and
needs the
performance parameters are not time critical (E.g.: Electronic toy).
 Small-scale embedded systems are usually built around low performance
and low cost 8 or 16 bit microprocessors/ microcontrollers.
 It may or may not contain an operating system for its functioning.

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» Classification based on Complexity & Performance:

» Medium-Scale Embedded Systems:

 Embedded systems which are slightly complex in hardware and firmware
(software) requirements.
 Medium-scale embedded systems are usually built around medium
performance, low cost 16 or 32 bit microprocessors/ microcontrollers or
digital signal processors.
 They usually contain an embedded operating system (general purpose/ real-
time).
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» Classification based on Complexity & Performance:

» Large-Scale Embedded Systems/ Complex Systems:

 Embedded systems which involve highly complex hardware and firmware.
 They are employed in mission critical applications demanding high
performance.
 Large-scale embedded systems are commonly built around high
performance 32 or 64 bit RISC processors/ controllers or Reconfigurable
System on Chip (RSoC) or multi-core processors and programmable logic
devices.
 They usually contain a high performance Real Time Operating System
(RTOS) for task scheduling, prioritization, and management.
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 MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS OF
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
» Embedded systems play a vital role in our day-to-day life, starting from
home
to computer industry.

» Embedded technology has acquired a new dimension from its first generation
model, the Apollo Guidance Computer, to the latest radio navigation system
combined with in-car entertainment technology and wearable computing
devices (Apple watch, Microsoft band, Fitbit fitness trackers, etc.).

» The application areas and the products in the embedded domain are
countless.
A few of the important domains and products are listed below:
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1. Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.

2. Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, fridge,

microwave oven, etc.

3. Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, intruder

detection alarms, closed circuit television cameras, fire alarms, etc.

4. Automotive Industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), engine

control,
ignition systems, automatic navigation systems, etc.
5. Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, multimedia
handset
applications, etc.

6. Computer Peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.

7. Computer Networking Systems: Network routers, switches, hubs, firewalls,
etc.

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9. Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines, etc.

10. Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, digital CROs,

logic analyzers PLC systems, etc.

11. Banking & Retail: Automatic teller machines (ATM) and currency counters,
point of sales (POS).

12. Card Readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices, etc.

13. Wearable Devices: Health and fitness trackers, Smartphone screen extension
for notifications, etc.

14. Cloud Computing and Internet of Things (IoT).

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 PURPOSE OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
» Embedded systems are used in various domains like consumer electronics,
home automation, telecommunications, automotive industry, healthcare,
control & instrumentation, retail and banking applications, etc.

» Each embedded system is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a

combination o the following tasks:

1. Data Collection, Storage, Representation

2. Data Communication

3. Data (Signal) Processing

4. Monitoring

5. Control

6. Application Specific User Interface.

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» Purpose of Embedded Systems:
» Data Collection, Storage, Representation
 Data is collection of facts, such as values or measurements. It can be
numbers, words, measurements, observations, or even just description of
things.
 Purpose of embedded system design is data collection.
 It performs acquisition of data from the external world.
 Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis,
manipulation, and transmission.
 Data can be analog or digital.

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» Purpose of Embedded Systems:
» Data Collection, Storage, Representation
 Embedded systems with analog data capturing techniques collect data
directly in the form of analog signal; whereas embedded systems with
digital data collection mechanism convert the analog signal to
corresponding digital signal using analog to digital (A/D) converters.
 If the data is digital, it can be directly captured by digital embedded system.
 A digital camera is a typical example of an embedded system with data
collection, storage, and representation of data. Images are captured and
captured image may be stored within the memory of the camera. The
captured image can also be presented to the user through a graphic LCD
(Liquid Crystal Display) unit.

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» Purpose of Embedded Systems:
» Data Communication
 Embedded data communication systems are deployed in
ranging from simple home networking applications systems
communication systems. to complex
 Network hubs, routers, switches are satellite
examples of dedicated data
transmission embedded systems.
 Data transmission is in the form of wire medium or wireless medium.
Initially wired medium is used by embedded systems; and as technology
changes, wireless medium becomes de-facto standard in embedded systems.
 USB, TCP/ IP are examples of wired communication; and BlueTooth,
ZigBee and Wi-Fi are examples for wireless communication.

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» Purpose of Embedded Systems:
» Data (Signal) Processing
 Embedded systems with signal processing functionalities are employed in
applications demanding signal processing like speech coding, audio-video
codec, transmission applications, etc.
 A digital hearing aid is a typical example of an embedded system
employing data processing.

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» Purpose of Embedded Systems:
» Monitoring
 Almost all embedded products coming under

the medical domain are with monitoring

functions.
 Patient heart beat is monitored by Electro
cardiogram (ECG) machine.
 Digital CRO, digital multi-meters, and logic analyzers are examples of
monitoring embedded systems.

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» Purpose of Embedded Systems:
» Control
 Sensors and actuators are used for controlling the system.
 Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in
environmental variable or measuring variable.
 Actuators connected to output port are controlled
according to the
changes in input variable.
 Air conditioner system used in our home to control the room temperature to
a specified limit is a typical example for embedded system for control
purpose. The air conditioner’s compressor unit (actuator) is controlled
according to the current room temperature (sensor) and the desired room
temperature set by the user.
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» Purpose of Embedded Systems:
» Application Specific User Interface
 These are embedded systems with application-specific user interfaces like
buttons, switches, keypad, lights, bells, display units, etc.
 Mobile phone is an example for this.
 In mobile phone, the user interface is provided through the keypad,
graphic LCD module, system speaker, vibration alert, etc.

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 THE TYPICAL EMBEDDED SYSTEM
» A typical embedded system (shown in the following Figure) contains a single
chip controller, which acts as the master brain of the system.

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 The controller can be
• a Microprocessor (Intel 8085) or

• a Microcontroller (Atmel AT89C51) or

• a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) device (Xilinx Spartan) or
• a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) (Blackfin® Processors from Analog Devices) or
• an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)/
• Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP) (ADE7760 Single Phase Energy Metreing IC from Analog Devices for energy metering applications).

Embedded hardware/ software systems are basically

designed –
-To regulate a physical variable or
-To manipulate the state of some devices The Memory of the system is
By –
responsible for –
-Sending some control signals to the
Actuators or holding the control algorithm

devices connected to the O/P ports of the system; and

in response to – other important configuration
-the input signals provided by the end users or Sensors details
which are connected to the input ports.
-Hence an embedded system can be viewed as a
reactive system.

Key boards, push button switches, etc. are examples for common user interface input devices
LEDs, liquid crystal displays, piezoelectric buzzers, etc. are examples for common user interface output devices

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 CORE OF THE EMBEDDED SYSTEM
» Embedded systems are domain and application specific and are built around a
central core. The core of the embedded system falls into any one of the
following categories:

1) General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors

 Microprocessors
 Microcontrollers
 Digital Signal Processors

2) Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)

3) Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)

4) Commercial off-the-shelf Components (COTS)

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» General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors:

» Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/ controller based. The
processor may be a microprocessor or a microcontroller or a digital signal
processor, depending on the domain and application.

» Microprocessors: A Microprocessor is a silicon chip representing a central

processing unit (CPU), which is capable of performing arithmetic as well as
logical operations.

» The CPU contains the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), control unit and
working registers.

» A microprocessor is a dependent unit and it requires the combination of' other

hardware like memory, timer unit, and interrupt controller, etc., for proper
functioning.

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» Intel claims the credit for developing the first microprocessor unit, Intel 4004, a
4-bit processor which was released in November 1971 – designed for older
day’s calculators.

» In April 1974, Intel launched the first 8-bit processor, the Intel 8080, with 16-
bit address bus and program counter and seven 8-bit registers.

» Intel 8080 was the most commonly used processors for industrial control and
other embedded applications in the 1975s.

» Immediately after the release of Intel 8080, Motorola also entered the market
with their processor, Motorola 6800 with a different architecture and
instruction set compared to 8080.

» In 1976 Intel came up with the upgraded version of 8080 – Intel 8085, with
two newly added instructions, three interrupt pins and serial I/0.
» Clock generator and bus controller circuits were built-in.
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» In July 1976 Zilog entered the microprocessor market with its Z80 processor as
competitor to Intel.

» Intel, AMD, Freescale, GLOBALFOUNDRIES, TI, Cyrix,

NVIDIA, Qualcomm, MediaTek, etc. are the key players in the
processor market.

» Intel still leads the market with cutting edge technologies in the processor
industry.

29
» Microcontrollers: A Microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a
CPU, scratch pad RAM, special and general purpose register arrays, on chip
ROM/ FLASH memory for program storage, timer and interrupt control units
and dedicated I/O ports.

» Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set of microprocessors.

» a microcontroller contains all the necessary

functional blocks for independent working

» they found greater place in the embedded

domain in place of microprocessors

» they are cheap, cost effective and are readily available in the market.

30
» Texas Instrument's TMS 1000 (1974) is considered
as the world's first microcontroller.

» TI followed Intel's 4004, 4-bit processor design and added some amount of
RAM, program storage memory (ROM) and 1/O support on a single chip.

» In 1977 Intel entered the microcontroller market with a family of

controllers
coming under one umbrella named MCS-48™ family.

» Intel came out with its most fruitful design in the 8-bit microcontroller domain-
the 8051 family and its derivatives.

» 8051 is the most popular and powerful 8-bit microcontroller ever built.

» Developed in the 1980s and was put under the family MCS-51.

» Almost 75% of the microcontrollers used in the embedded domain were 8051
family based controllers during the 1980-90s.
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» 8051 processor cores are used in more than 100 devices by more than 20
independent manufacturers like Maxim, Philips, Atmel, etc. under the license
from Intel.

» Due to the low cost, wide availability, memory efficient instruction set, mature
development tools and Boolean processing (bit manipulation operation)
capability

» 8051 family derivative microcontrollers are much used in high-volume

consumer electronic devices, entertainment industry and other gadgets where
cost-cutting is essential.

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 » Microprocessors versus Microcontrollers
Microprocessors Microcontrollers
Microprocessors generally does not have RAM, ROM and Microcontroller is ‘all in one’ processor, with RAM, I/O
I/O pins. ports, all on the chip.

Microprocessors usually use its pins as a bus to interface to

Controlling bus is internal and not available to the board
RAM, ROM, and peripheral devices. Hence, the
designer.
controlling bus is expandable at the board level.
Microprocessors are generally capable of being built into Microcontrollers are usually used for more dedicated
bigger general purpose applications. applications.

Microprocessors, generally do not have power saving Microcontrollers have power saving system, like idle mode
system. or power saving; mode so overall it uses less power.

The overall cost of systems made with Microprocessors is Microcontrollers are made by using complementary metal
high, because of the high number of external components oxide semiconductor technology; so they are far cheaper
required. than Microprocessors.

Processing speed of general microprocessors is above 1 Processing speed of Microcontrollers is about 8 MHz to 50
GHz; so it works much faster than Microcontrollers. MHz.

Microprocessors are based on von-Neumann model;

Microcontrollers are based on Harvard architecture; where,
where, program and data are stored in same memory
program memory and data memory are separate.
module. , 33
» Digital Signal Processors (DSPs): Digital Signal Processors are

» powerful special purpose 8/ 16/ 32 bit

microprocessors
demands and
» designedspecifically to meet the power
computational constraints
» of today’s embedded audio, video, and communications applications.

» Digital signal processors are 2 to 3 times faster than the general

purpose
microprocessors in signal processing applications.

» DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution,

» whereas general purpose processors implement the algorithm in firmware and

» the speed of execution depends primarily on the clock for the processors.

» DSP can be viewed as a microchip designed for performing high

speed
'division'.
computational operations for 'addition', 'subtraction', 'multiplication'
» A typical digital signal processor incorporates the following four key units:

» Program Memory: Memory for storing the program required by DSP to

process
the data.

» Data Memory: Working memory for storing temporary variables and data/
signal to be processed.

» Computational Engine: Performs the signal processing in accordance with the

stored program memory.
» Incorporates many specialized arithmetic units and each of them
operates
simultaneously to increase the execution speed.

» Incorporates multiple hardware shifters for shifting operands and thereby saves
execution time.

» I/O Unit: Acts as an interface between the outside world and DSP.
35
» Audio video signal processing, telecommunication and multimedia applications
are typical examples where DSP is employed.

» Digital signal processing employs a large amount of real-time calculations.

» Sum of Products (SOP) calculation, Convolution, Fast Fourier Transform

(FFT), Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), etc, are some of the operations
performed by digital signal processors.
 Blackfin® processors from Analog Devices is an example of DSP which
delivers breakthrough signal processing performance and power efficiency
while also offering a full 32-bit RlSC MCU programming model.

36
» RISC versus CISC Processors/ Controllers: The term RlSC stands for
Reduced Instruction Set Computing.

» All RlSC processors/ controllers possess lesser number of instructions,

typically in the range of 30 to 40.

» CISC stands for Complex instruction Set Computing.

» Here, the instruction set is complex and instructions are high in number.

» From a programmers point of view RISC processors are comfortable,

» since s/ he needs to learn only a few instructions,

» whereas for a CISC processor s/ he

needs to learn more number of instructions and should
understand the context of usage of each instruction .

37
» Atmel AVR microcontroller is an example for a RISC processor and its
instruction set contains only 32 instructions.

» The original version of 8051 microcontroller (e.g.AT 89C51) is a CISC

controller and its instruction set contains 255 instructions.

» Remember it is not the number of instructions that determines whether a

processor/ controller is CISC or RISC.

» There are some other factors like pipelining features, instruction set type,
etc., for determining the RISC/ CISC criteria.

» Some of the important criteria are listed below:

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» CISC versus RISC
CISC RISC

1. Complex instructions, taking multiple clock 1. Simple instructions, taking single clock

2. Emphasis on hardware, complexity is in the 2. Emphasis on software, complexity is in the

micro-program/processor complier

3. Complex instructions, instructions executed 3. Reduced instructions, instructions executed

by micro-program/processor by hardware

4. Variable format instructions, single register 4. Fixed format instructions, multiple register
set and many instructions sets and few instructions

5. Many instructions and many addressing

5. Fixed instructions and few addressing modes
Modes
6. Conditional jump is usually based on status 6. Conditional jump can be based on a bit
register bit anywhere in memory
7. Memory reference is embedded in many 7. Memory reference is embedded in LOAD/

instructions , STORE instructions 39

» Harvard versus Von-Neumann Processor/ Controller Architecture:
The
terms Harvard and Von-Neumann refers to the processor architecture design.

» Microprocessors/ Controllers based on the Von-Neumann architecture shares

a single common bus for fetching both instructions and data.
» Program instructions and data are stored in a common main memory.

» Von-Neumann architecture based processors/ controllers first fetch an

instruction and then fetch the data to support the instruction from
code
memory.

» The two separate fetches slows down the controller's operation.

» Von-Neumann architecture is also referred as Princeton architecture, since it

was developed by the Princeton University.

40
» Microprocessors/ Controllers based on the Harvardarchitecture
will have separate data bus and instruction bus.

» This allows the data transfer and program fetching to occur simultaneously on
both buses.

» The data memory can be read and written while program memory is being
accessed.

» These separated data memory and code memory buses allow one instruction
to
execute while the next instruction is fetched ("pre-fetching").

» The pre-fetch theoretically allows much faster execution than Von-Neumann

architecture.

41
» Harvard versus Von-Neumann Processor/ Controller Architecture

Von-Neumann Architecture Harvard Architecture

1. Single shared bus for instruction and data 1. Separate buses for instruction and data
fetching fetching
2. Chances for accidental corruption of program 2. No chances for accidental corruption of
memory, as data memory and program program memory, as data memory and
memory are stored physically in the same program memory are stored physically in
chip different locations

3. Low performance compared to Harvard 3. Easier to pipeline, so high performance can

architecture; and comparatively cheaper be achieved; and comparatively high cost
4. Allows self modifying codes – code/
instruction which modifies itself 4. No memory alignment problems
during
execution
42
» Big-Endian versus Little-Endian Processors/ Controllers:

» Endianness specifies the order in which the data is stored in the memory by
processor operations in a multi-byte system (Processors whose word size is
greater than one byte).

» Suppose the word length is two byte; then data can be stored in memory in two
different ways:
» Higher order of data byte at the higher memory and lower order of data byte at
location just below the higher memory – Little-Endian. E.g.: a 4 byte long integer
Byte3 Byte2 Byte1 Byte0 will be stored in the memory as follows:

43
» Big-Endian versus Little-Endian Processors/ Controllers:
» Little-Endian. E.g.: a 4 byte long integer Byte3 Byte2 Byte1 Byte0 will be stored in
the memory as follows:

» Lower order of data byte at the higher memory and higher order of data byte at
location just below the higher memory – Big-Endian. E.g.: a 4 byte long integer
Byte3 Byte2 Byte1 Byte0 will be stored in the memory as follows:

44
» Load Store Operation and Instruction Pipelining:

» The RlSC processor instruction set is

orthogonal, meaning it operates on registers.

» The memory access related operations are performed by the special instructions
load and store.

» If the operand is specified as memory location, the content of it is loaded to a

register using the load instruction.

» The instruction store stores data from a

specified register to a specified memory location.

» The concept of Load Store Architecture is

illustrated with the following example:

45
» Load Store Operation and Instruction Pipelining:

» Suppose x, y and z are memory locations and we want to add the contents of
x
and y and store the result in location z.

» Under the load store architecture the same is achieved with 4 instructions
as
shown in following Figure.

46
» The conventional instruction execution by the processor follows the fetch-
decode-execute sequence; where
» 'fetch' part fetches the instruction from program memory or code memory,

» ‘decode’ part decodes the instruction to generate the necessary control signals

» ‘execute’ stage reads the operands, perform ALU operations and stores the
result.

» The fetch and decode operations are performed in sequence.

» Whenever the current instruction is executing the program counter will be

loaded with the address of the next instruction.

» In case of jump or branch instruction, the new location is known only after
completion of the jump or branch instruction.

47
» Depending on the stages involved in an instruction (fetch, read register and
decode, execute instruction, access an operand in data memory, write back the
result to register, etc.), there can be multiple levels of instruction pipelining.

» The following Figure illustrates the concept of Instruction pipelining for single
stage pipelining.

48
» Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs):
» Application Specific Integrated Circuit is a microchip designed to perform a
specific or unique application.

» Used as replacement to conventional general purpose logic chips.

» Integrates several functions into a single chip and there by reduces the system
development cost.

» As a single chip, ASIC consumes a very small area in the total system.

» ASICs can be pre-fabricated for a special application or it can be custom

fabricated by using the components from a re-usable 'building block' library of
components for a particular customer application.

49
» ASIC based systems are profitable only for large volume commercial
productions.

» Fabrication of ASICs requires a non-refundable initial investment (known as

Non-Recurring Engineering Charges (NRE), a one-time expense) for the
process technology and configuration expenses.

Features of ASICs: Drawbacks of ASICs:

1. NRE cost. 1. Inflexible design.
2. Less complex. 2. Updates require a re-design.
3. High Performance.
3. Deployed systems cannot be upgraded.
4. Low power consumption.
4. Complex and expensive development tool.

5. Mistakes in product development are costly.

50
» If Non-Recurring Engineering Charges (NRE) is borne by a third party and the
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) is made openly available in the
market, the ASIC is .referred as Application Specific Standard Product
(ASSP).

ASICs ASSPs
1. If third party is ready to pay NRE
1. Microchip designed to cost
perform specific application and ASIC is made available into the
market, the ASIC referred as ASSP
1. Most of the ASICs are
1. Openly available in the market
proprietary product

51
» General Purpose Processor (GPP) versus Application-Specific Instruction
Set Processor (ASIP):

» GPP is a processor designed for general computational tasks.

» The processor running inside your laptop or desktop (Pentium 4/ AMD Athlon).

» Produced in large volumes – per unit cost for a chip is low.

» GPP contains an Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).

» ASIPs are processors with architecture and

instruction set optimized to specific-domain/ application
requirements
» like network processing, automotive, telecom, media applications, digital signal
processing, control applications, etc.

» ASIPs incorporate a processor and on-chip peripherals, demanded by

the
52
application requirement, program and data memory.
» Programmable Logic
Devices:
» Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-to-
device
interfacing, data communication, signal processing, data display, timing and
control operations, and almost every other function a system must perform.

» Logic devices can be classified into two broad categories-

» Fixed

» programmable.

» PLDs offer customers a wide range of logic

capacity, features, speed, and voltage
characteristics;

» PLDs can be re-configured to perform any number of functions at

any time. 53
» Advantages of PLDs: Programmable logic devices offer
a number of advantages over fixed logic devices, including:

» PLDs offer customers much more flexibility during the design cycle
» because design iterations are simply a matter of changing the programming file, and
results of design changes can be seen immediately in working parts.

» PLDs do not require long lead times for prototypes or production.

» PLDs do not require customers to pay for large NRE costs and purchase
expensive mask sets
» PLD suppliers incur those costs when they design their programmable devices.

» PLDs allow customers to order just the number of parts they need, when they
need them, allowing them to control inventory.

» PLDs can be reprogrammed even after a piece of equipment is shipped to a

customer.
54
» CPLDs and FPGAs: The two major types of programmable logic devices are

» Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs)

» Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs)

» FPGAs offer the highest amount of logic density, the most features, and the
highest performance.

» The largest FPGA now shipping part of the Xilinx Virtex™.

55
 » CPLD versus FPGA

CPLDs FPGAs
1. Logic blocks are used for construction of
1. PLD is used for construction of CPLD
FPGA

2. CPLD is non-volatile & less costly 2. FPGA is volatile & costly

3. Delays are much more predictable

in 3. Prediction of delay is difficult in FPGA
CPLDs
4. Operating speed is low & is suitable for 4. Operating speed is high & is suitable for
control circuit timing circuit
5. CPLD has less flexibility and design 5. FPGA has more flexibility as well
as
Capacity
design capacity
6. CPLD could work immediately after 6. FPGA could not work until
the
power up
configuration is done
7. CPLDs are considered as ‘coarse-grain’ 7. FPGAs are considered as ‘fine-
» FPGA versus ASIC
FPGAs ASICs

1. FPGA is a reprogrammable 1. ASIC is a unique

integrated circuit type of integrated circuit
meant for a specific application
2. FPGA is not efficient in terms of use of 2. ASIC wastes very little
material,
Materials
recurring cost is low

3. FPGA is better than ASIC when building 3. Cost of ASIC is low only when it
is
low volume production circuits
produced in large qualtity
4. Once created, ASIC can no longer
4. FPGA is alterable be
Altered
5. FPGAs are useful for research and
5. ASICs are not suitable for research and
de3velopment activities. Prototype
development purpose, as they are
fabrication using FPGA is affordable and
» Commercial Off-the-Shelf Components
(COTS):
» A COTS product is one which is used 'asis'.

» COTS products are designed in such a way to provide easy integration and
interoperability with existing system components.

» The COTS component may be developed around a general purpose or domain

specific processor or an Application Specific Integrated Circuit or a
Programmable Logic Device.
» Examples of COTS hardware unit: remote controlled toy car control units including
the RF circuitry part, high performance, high frequency microwave electronics (2-
200 GHz), high bandwidth analog-to-digital converters, devices and components for
operation at very high temperatures, electro-optic IR imaging arrays, UV/IR
detectors, etc.

58
» Major
Advantage:
» COTS are cheap

» COTS are readily available in the market

» Developer can cut down his/ her development time to a great extent.
» which reduces the time to market your embedded systems.

» Examples:
» The TCPIIP plug-in module available from various manufactures like 'WIZnet', 'Freescale',
'Dynalog', etc are very good examples of COTS product (see Figure).

» Benefits of COTs-based System:

1. To reduce development cost 2. To reduce software life-cycle

3. To improve software development process

4. To reduce coding, debugging, unit testing, and code inspection.

59
 MEMORY
» Memory is an important part of a processor/ controller based embedded
systems.

» Some of the processors/ controllers contain built in memory and this memory
is referred as on-chip memory.

» Others do not contain any memory inside the chip and requires external
memory to be connected with the controller/processor to store the control
algorithm. It is called off-chip memory.

» Also some working memory is required for holding data temporarily during
certain operations.

60
» Program Storage Memory (ROM):

» The program memory or code storage memory of an embedded system stores

the program instructions and it can be classified into different types as per the
block diagram representation given in the following Figure.

» The code memory retains its contents even after the power to it is turned off.
It
is generally known as non-volatile storage memory.
61
1. Masked Memory (MROM): A one-time programmable device, Uses
hardwired technology for storing data, Factory programmed by masking and
metallization process at the time of production.

» Advantage: Low cost for high volume production, Least expensive type of solid
state memory.

» Different mechanisms are used for the masking process of the ROM, like

» (1) Creation of an enhancement or depletion mode transistor

through
channel implant.

» (2) By creating the memory cell either using a standard transistor or a

high
threshold transistor.

62
» Applications: Masked ROM is a good candidate for storing the embedded
firmware for low cost embedded devices.

» Once the design is proven and the firmware requirements are tested and frozen,
the binary data (The firmware cross compiled/ assembled to target processor
specific machine code) corresponding to it can be given to the MROM
fabricator.

» Limitations: with MROM based firmware storage is the inability to modify the
device firmware against firmware upgrades.

» Since the MROM is permanent in bit storage, it is not possible to alter the bit
information.

63
2. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)/ One Time Programmable
Memory (OTP): Not pre-programmed by the manufacturer, End user is
responsible for programming .

» PROM has nichrome or polysilicon wires arranged in a matrix.

» These wires can be functionally viewed as fuses.

» It is programmed by a PROM programmer which selectively burns the fuses

according to the bit pattern to be stored.

» Fuses which are not blown/ burned, represents logic "1"; whereas fuses which
are blown/ burned represents a logic "0". The default state is logic "1".

64
» Applications: OTP is widely used for commercial production of embedded
systems whose proto-typed versions are proven and the code is finalized.

» It is a low cost solution for commercial production. OTPs cannot be

reprogrammed.

» Limitations: OTPs are not useful and worth for development purpose. During
the development phase, the code is subject to continuous changes and using an
OTP each time to load the code is not economical.

65
3. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM): EPROM gives
the flexibility to reprogram the same chip.

» EPROM stores the bit information by charging the floating gate of an FET.

» Bit information is stored by using an EPROM programmer, which applies high

voltage to charge the floating gate.

» EPROM contains a quartz crystal window for erasing the stored information. If
the window is exposed to ultraviolet rays for a fixed duration, the entire
memory will be erased.

» Limitations: Even though the EPROM chip is flexible in terms of re-

programmability, it needs to be taken out of the circuit board and put in a UV
eraser device for 20 to 30 minutes.

» So it is a tedious and time-consuming process.

66
4. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM): The
information contained in the EEPROM memory can be altered by using
electrical signals at the register/Byte level.

» They can be erased and reprogrammed in-circuit.

» These chips include a chip erase mode; and in this mode, they can be erased in
a few milliseconds.

» Applications: It provides greater flexibility for system design.

» Limitations: is their capacity is limited (only few kilobytes) when compared

with the standard ROM.

67
5. FLASH: FLASH is the latest ROM technology and is the most popular
ROM
technology used in today's embedded designs.

» FLASH memory is a variation of EEPROM technology. It combines the re-

programmability of EEPROM and the high capability of standard ROMs.

» FLASH memory is organized as sectors (blocks) or pages.

» FLASH memory stores information in an array of floating gate MOSFET

transistors.

» The erasing of memory can be one at sector

level or page level without affecting the other sectors
or pages.

» Each sector/ page should be erased before re-programming.

» The typical erasable capacity of FLASH is 1000 cycles.

68
 6. Non-volatile RAM is a random access memory with
NVRAM: battery
backup.
» It contains static RAM based memory and a minute battery for
providing supply to the memory in the absence of external power supply.

» The memory and battery are packed together in a single package.

» The life span of NVRAM is expected to be around 10 years.

» DSJ644 from Maxim/ Dallas is an example of 32KB NVRAM.

69
» Read-Write Memory/ Random Access memory (RAM):

» RAM is the data memory or working memory of the controller/ processor.

Controller/ processor can read from it and write to it.

» RAM is volatile, meaning when the power is turned off, all the contents are
destroyed.

» RAM is a direct access memory, meaning we can access the desired memory
location directly without the need for traversing through the entire memory
locations to reach the desired memory position (i.e. random access of memory
location).
» This is in contrast to the Sequential Access Memory (SAM), where the desired
memory location is accessed by either traversing through the entire memory or
through a 'seek' method.

70
» RAM generally falls into three categories: Static
RAM (SRAM), dynamic RAM (DRAM) and non-volatile
RAM (NVRAM).

71
1. Static RAM (SRAM): Static RAM stores data in the form of voltage.

» Made up of flip-flops

» Static RAM is the fastest form of RAM available.

» Implementation: an SRAM cell (bit) is realized using six transistors (or 6

MOSFETs).

» Four of the transistors are used for building the latch (flip-flop) part of the
memory cell and

» two for controlling the access.

» SRAM is fast in operation due to its

resistive networking and switching capabilities.

72
» In simplest representation an SRAM cell can be visualized as shown in the
following Figure:

73
 » This implementation in its
simpler form can
visualized be as
coupled two-cross
read/ inverters
write
control through with
» The four transistors in the
transistors.
middle form the cross-
coupled inverters.

» This can be visualized as

shown in the following
Figure: 74
» The memory cell is controlled by the line Word Line, which controls the access
transistors (MOSFETs) Q5 and Q6.

» To write a value, apply the desired value to the bit control lines (For writing
1, make B = 1 and B\ =0; For writing 0, make B = 0 and B\ =1) and assert
the Word Line (Make Word line high).

» For reading the content of the memory cell, assert both B and B\ bit lines to
1 and set the Word line to 1.

» Limitations: SRAM are low capacity and high cost. Since a minimum of six
transistors are required to build a single memory cell, imagine how many
memory cells we can fabricate on a silicon wafer.

75
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM): Stores data in the form of charge.

» They are made up of MOS transistor gates.

» Advantages: of DRAM are its high density and low cost compared to SRAM.

» Disadvantage: since the information is stored as charge it gets leaked off with
time; and to prevent this, they need to be refreshed periodically.

» Special circuits called DRAM controllers are used for the

refreshing
operation.

» The refresh operation is done periodically in milliseconds interval.

76
» The following Figure illustrates the typical implementation of a DRAM
cell.

» The MOSFET acts as the gate for the incoming and outgoing data,
whereas
the capacitor acts as the bit storage unit.

77
 SRAM Cell DRAM Cell
1. Made up of 6 CMOS transistors 1. Made up of a MOSFET and
a
(MOSFET)
Capacitor
1. Doesn’t require refreshing 1. Requires refreshing
1. More expensive 1. Less expensive
1. Slow in operation due to refresh
1. Fast in operation, typical access requirement, typical access time
time is 10 ns is 60 ns; write operation is faster
than read operation

78
 3. Non-volatile RAM is a random access memory with
NVRAM: battery
backup.
» It contains static RAM based memory and a minute battery for
providing supply to the memory in the absence of external power supply.

» The memory and battery are packed together in a single package.

» The life span of NVRAM is expected to be around 10 years.

» DSJ644 from Maxim/ Dallas is an example of 32KB NVRAM.

79
» Memory According to the Type of Interface:

» The interface (connection) of memory with the processor/ controller can be of

various types. It may be –

» a parallel interface (the parallel data lines (DO-D7) for an 8 bit processor/
controller will be connected to DO-D7 of the memory) [memory density is
expressed in terms of kilobytes] or

» a serial interface like I2C (Pronounced as I Square C - It is a 2 line serial

interface) [used for data storage memory like EEPROM] [memory density of a
serial memory is usually expressed in terms of kilobits] – AT24C512 is an
example for serial memory with capacity 512 kilobits and 2-wire interface; or

» a SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface, 2+n line interface where n stands for the
total number of SPI bus devices in the system)

» a single wire interconnection (like Dallas 1-Wire interface).

80
» Memory Shadowing:

» RAM access is about three times as fast as ROM access – Execution of a

program from a Read Only Memory (ROM) is very slow (120 to 200 ns)
compared to the execution from a random access memory (40 to 70 ns).

» Shadowing of memory is a technique adopted to solve the execution speed

problem in processor-based systems.

» In computer systems and video systems, there will be a configuration holding

ROM called Basic Input Output Configuration ROM or simply BIOS.

» BIOS stores the hardware configuration information like the address

assigned
for various serial ports and other non-plug 'n' play devices, etc.

» Usually it is read and the system is configured accordingly to it during

system
boot up and it is time consuming. 81
» Now, the manufactures included a RAM behind the logical layer of BIOS at its
same address as a shadow to the BIOS; and the following steps happens:
 During the boot up, BIOS is copied to the shadowed RAM
 RAM is write protected
 BIOS reading is disabled.

» Why both RAM and ROM are needed for holding the same data?

» The answer is: RAM is volatile and it cannot hold the configuration data which
is copied from the BIOS when the power supply is switched off.

» Only a ROM can hold it permanently.

» But for high system performance, it should be accessed from a RAM instead of
accessing from a ROM.

82
» Memory Selection for Embedded Systems:

» Embedded systems require

» a program memory for holding the control algorithm or embedded OS and

applications,

» data memory for holding variables and temporary data during task
execution,
and

» memory for holding non•volatile data (like configuration data, look up table,
etc.) which are modifiable by the application.

» The memory requirement for an embedded system in terms of RAM and

ROM
(EEPROM/FLASH/NVRAM) is solely dependent on the type of the embedded
83
system and the applications for which it is designed.
» There is no hard and fast rule for calculating the memory
requirements.
» Lot of factors need to be considered when selecting the type and size of
memory for embedded system.
» For example, if the embedded system is designed using SoC or a microcontroller with on-chip
RAM and ROM (FLASH/EEPROM), depending on the application need the on-chip memory
may be sufficient for designing the total system.

» As a rule of thumb,

» identify your system requirement and

» type of the processor (SoC or microcontroller with on•chip memory)

» take a decision on whether the on-chip memory is sufficient or external

memory is required.

84
» Example: A simple electronic toy design:

» As the complexity of requirements are less and data memory requirement are
minimal

» think of a microcontroller with a few bytes of internal RAM,

» a few bytes or kilobytes (depending on

the number of tasks and the complexity of
tasks) of FLASH memory and

» » There
a few bytes
is no needoffor
EEPROM
externa1(if required)
memory for designing the system.
at all.

» A PIC microcontroller device the I/O and

memory
which satisfies requirements can be used in this
case.

85
» Example: Embedded design based on an RTOS

» RTOS requires certain amount of RAM for its execution and ROM for storing
the RTOS image.

» Binary code for RTOS kernel containing all the services is stored in a non-
volatile memory (like FLASH) as either compressed or non-compressed
data.

» During boot-up of the device, the RTOS files are copied from the program
storage memory, decompressed if required and then loaded to the RAM for
execution.

» The supplier of the RTOS usually gives a rough estimate on the run time
RAM requirements and program memory requirements for the RTOS.

86
» On a safer side, always add a buffer value to the total estimated RAM and
ROM size requirements.

» Example: A smart phone device with Windows mobile operating system.

» Suppose 64MB RAM and 128MB ROM are the minimum requirements for
running the Windows mobile device;

» indeed you need extra RAM and ROM for running user applications.

» So while building the system, count the memory for that also and arrive at a
value which is always at the safer side, so that you won't end up in a situation
where you don't have sufficient memory to install and run user applications.

87
» There are two parameters for representing a memory (Size of the memory chip
& Word size of the memory) –
 Size of the memory chip: Memory chips come in standard sizes, like
512bytes, 1024bytes (1 kilobyte), 2048bytes (2 kilobytes), 4Kb, 8Kb, 16Kb,
32Kb, 64Kb, 128Kb, 256Kb, 512Kb, 1024Kb (1 megabytes), etc.
 Suppose your embedded application requires only 750 bytes of RAM,
you don't have the option of getting a memory chip with size 750 bytes;
the only option left with is to choose the memory chip with a size closer
to the size needed. Hence, 1024 bytes is the least possible option.
 A processor/ controller with 16-bit address bus can addressed 216 =
65536 bytes = 64Kb. Hence, it is meaningless to select a 128Kb memory
chip for a processor with 16-bit wide address bus.

88
» There are two parameters for representing a memory (Size of the memory chip
& Word size of the memory) –
 Word size of the memory: The word size refers to the number of memory
bits that can be read/write together at a time. 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, 32 etc., are the
word sizes supported by memory chips. Ensure that the word size supported
by the memory chip matches with the data bus width of the processor/
controller.

» FLASH memory is the popular choice for ROM (program storage memory) in
embedded applications. It is a powerful and cost-effective solid-state storage
technology for mobile electronics devices and other consumer applications.
» The EEPROM data storage memory is available as either serial interface or parallel
interface chip. If the processor/ controller of the device supports serial interface and the
amount of data to write and read to and from the device is less, it is better to have a
serial EEPR0M chip.
 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS
» An embedded system is in constant interaction with the Real world, and the
controlling/ monitoring functions, executed by the embedded system is
achieved in accordance with the changes happening to the Real world. The
changes in system environment or variables are detected by the sensors
connected to the input port of the embedded system.

» A sensor is a transducer device that converts energy from one form to another,
for any measurement or control purpose.
 Sensor which counts steps for pedometer functionality is an
Accelerometer sensor.
 Sensor used in smart watch devices to measure the high intensity is an
Ambient Light Sensor (ALS).

90
» If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose, the system will
produce some changes in the controlling variable to bring the controlled
variable to the desired value. It is achieved through an actuator connected to
the output port of the embedded system.

» Actuator is a form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical) which

converts signals to corresponding physical action (motion). Actuator acts as an
output device.
 Smart watches use Ambient Light Sensor to detect the surrounding light
intensity and uses an electrical/ electronic actuator circuit to adjust the
screen brightness.

91
» If the embedded system is designed for monitoring purpose only, then there is
no need for including an actuator in the system.
» For example, take the case of an ECG machine. It is designed to monitor the heart beat
status of a patient and it cannot impose a control over the patient's heart beat and its
order. The sensors used here are the different electrode sets connected to the body of the
patient. The variations are captured and presented to the user (may be a doctor) through
a visual display or some printed chart.

Sensors Actuators
1. Sensor is an input device 1. Actuator is an output device
2. Convert a physical parameter to 2. Convert an electrical signal to a physical
an
Output
electrical output
3. A device that detects events or changes in 3. A component of a machine that
is
the environment and send the information
responsible for moving and controlling
to another electronic device
mechanisms
4. Sensor help to monitor the changes in the 4. Actuator helps to control the environment
» The I/O Subsystem:

» The I/O subsystem of the embedded system facilitates the interaction of the
embedded system with the external world. As mentioned earlier the interaction
happens through the sensors and actuators connected to the input and output
ports respectively of the embedded system.

» Light Emitting Diode (LED): LED is an important output device for visual
indication in any embedded system. LED can be used as an indicator for the
status of various signals or situations.

» Typical examples are indicating the presence of power conditions like 'Device
ON', 'Battery Low' or 'Charging of Battery' for a battery operated handheld
embedded devices.
» Light Emitting Diode is a p-n junction diode and it contains an anode and a
cathode. For proper functioning of the LED, the anode of it should be
connected to +ve terminal of the supply voltage and cathode to the –ve
terminal of supply voltage. A resister is used in series between the power
supply and the LED to limit the current through the LED.

» The ideal LED interfacing circuit is shown in the following Figure.

» LEDs can be interfaced to the port pin of a processor/

controller in two ways.

» Anode is directly connected to the port pin and the port

pin drives the LED.

» Port pin is at logic High (Logic '1').

» Cathode of the LED is connected to the port pin and the
anode to the supply
voltage. LED is turned on when the port pin is
» 7-Segment LED Display: The 7-segment LED display is an output device used
for displaying alpha-numeric characters.

» It contains 8 light-emitting diode (LED) segments arranged in a special form.

» Out of the 8 LED segments, 7 are used for displaying alpha-numeric characters
and 1 is used for representing ‘decimal point'.

» The following Figure explains the arrangement of LED segments in 7-segment

LED display.

» The LED segments are named A to G and

the 'decimal point LED segment is named
as DP.

» For displaying 3, the segments A, B, C, D,

G are lit.
» The 7-segment LED displays are available in two different configurations,
namely; Common Anode and Common Cathode.

» In common anode configuration, the anodes of the

8 segments are connected commonly

» In common cathode configuration, the 8 LED segments share a common

cathode line.
» Optocoupler: Optocoupler is a solid state device to isolate two parts of a circuit.
Optocoupler combines an LED and a photo-transistor in a single housing
(package).

» In electronic circuits, an optocoupler is used for –

» suppressing interference in data communication,

» circuit isolation,

» high voltage separation,

» simultaneous separation and signal intensification, etc.

» Optocouplers can be used in either input circuits or in output

circuits.
» The following Figure illustrates the usage of optocoupler in input circuit and
output circuit of an embedded system with a microcontroller as the system
core.

» Optocoupler is available as ICs from different semiconductor manufacturers.

The MCT2M IC from Fairchild semiconductor is an example for optocoupler
IC.
» Stepper Motor: A stepper motor is an electro-
mechanical device which generates discrete displacement (motion) in
response, to de electrical signals.

» A stepper motor produces discrete rotation in response to the DC

voltage applied to it.

» Stepper motors are widely used in –

» industrial embedded applications,

» consumer electronic products and robotics control systems.

» The paper feed mechanism of a printer/ fax makes use of stepper

motors for
its functioning.
» Based on the coil winding arrangements, a two-
phase stepper motor is classified into two. They are:

» Unipolar: A unipolar stepper motor contains two windings per phase.

» The direction of rotation (clockwise or anticlockwise) of a stepper motor

is
controlled by changing the direction of current flow.

» The coils are represented as A, B, C and D.

.
» Coils A and C carry current in opposite directions for phase 1

» Similarly, B and D carry current in opposite directions for phase 2.

» Bipolar: A bipolar stepper motor contains single winding per phase.
» For reversing the motor rotation the current flow through the is
windings
reversed dynamically.
» It requires complex circuitry for current flow reversal.
» The stepping of stepper motor can be implemented
in different ways by changing the sequence of activation of
the stator windings.

» The different stepping modes supported by stepper motor are explained below:

» Full Step Wave Step Half Step

» The following Figure shows the stator winding details of Stepper
motor:
» ULN2803 is an octal peripheral driver array available from Texas Instruments
and ST microelectronics for driving a 5V stepper motor.

» Simple driving circuit can also be built using transistors.

» The following circuit diagram illustrates the interfacing of a stepper motor

through a driver circuit connected to the port pins of a microcontroller/
processor.
» Relay: Relay is an electro-mechanical device. In embedded application, the
'Relay' unit acts as dynamic path selectors for signals and power. The 'Relay'
unit contains a relay coil made up of insulated wire on a metal core and a metal
armature with one or more contacts.

» 'Relay' works on electromagnetic principle.

» When a voltage is applied to the relay coil, current flows through the coil,
which in turn generates a magnetic field. The magnetic field attracts the
armature core and moves the contact point. The movement of the contact
point changes the power/ signal flow path.

» 'Relays' are available in different configurations.

» The following Figure illustrates the widely used
relay configurations for embedded applications.

» The Single Pole Single Throw configuration has only one path for
information
flow. The path is either open or dosed in normal condition.

» For normally open Single Pole Single Throw relay, the circuit is
normally
open and it becomes closed when the relay is energized.

» For normally closed Single Pole Single Throw configuration, the circuit is
normally closed and it becomes open when the relay is energized.

» 10
5
» The Relay is controlled using a relay driver circuit connected to the port pin of
the processor/ controller. A transistor is used for building the relay driver
circuit.

» The following Figure illustrates the same.

» Piezo Buzzer: Piezo buzzer is a piezoelectric device
for generating audio indications in embedded application.

» A piezoelectric buzzer contains a piezoelectric

diaphragm which produces audible sound in response to the voltage
applied to it.

» Piezoelectric buzzers are available in two types. 'Self• driving' and 'External
driving'.

» The 'Self-driving' circuit contains all the necessary components to generate

sound at a predefined tone.

» External driving piezo buzzers supports the generation of different tones.

» A piezo buzzer can be directly interfaced to the port pin of the processor/
control. Depending on the driving current requirements, the piezo buzzer can
also be interfaced using a transistor based driver circuit as in the case of a
» Push Button Switch: Push button switch is an input device. Push button switch
comes in two configurations, namely 'Push to Make' and 'Push to Break'.

» In the 'Push to Make' configuration, the switch is in the open state and it makes a
circuit contact when it is pushed or pressed.

» In the 'Push to Break' configuration, the switch is in the closed state and it
breaks the circuit contact when it is pushed or pressed.

» The push button stays in the 'closed' (for Push to Make type) or 'open' (For Push
to Break type) state.

» Push button is used for generating a momentary pulse. In embedded application

push button is generally used as reset and start switch and pulse generator. The
Push button is normally connected to the port pin of the host processor/
controller.

» Depending on the way in which the push button interfaced to the controller, it
» Push button is used for generating a momentary pulse.

» In embedded application push button is generally used as reset and start switch
and pulse generator. The Push button is normally connected to the port pin of
the host processor/ controller.

» Depending on the way in which the push button interfaced to the controller, it
can generate either a 'HIGH' pulse or a 'LOW' pulse.

» The following Figure Illustrates how the push button can be used for generating
'LOW' and 'HIGH' pulses.
» Keyboard: Keyboard is an input device 'HIGH'
Pulse generator for user interfacing.

» If the number of keys required is very limited, push button switches can be
used and they can be directly interfaced to the port pins for reading.
 However, there may be situations demanding a large number of keys for user
input (e.g. PDA device with alpha-numeric keypad for user data entry).
 In such situations it may not be possible to interface each keys to a port pin
due to the limitation in the number of general purpose port pins available
for the processor/ controller in use and moreover it is wastage of port pins.
 Matrix keyboard is an optimum solution for handling large key requirement.
It greatly reduces the number of interface connections.
» For example, for interfacing 16 keys, in the direct interfacing technique, 16 port
pins are required, whereas in the matrix keyboard only 8 lines are required.

» The 16 keys are arranged in a 4 column x 4 Row matrix. The following Figure
illustrates the connection o keys in a matrix keyboard.
» In a matrix keyboard, the keys are arranged in matrix fashion. For detecting a
key press, the keyboard uses the scanning technique, where each row of the
matrix is pulled low and the columns are read. After reading the status of each
columns corresponding to a row, the row is pulled high and the next row is
pulled low and the status of the columns are read.

» This process is repeated until the scanning for all rows are completed. When a
row is pulled low and if a key connected to the row is pressed, reading the
column to which the key is connected will give logic 0. Since keys are
mechanical devices, proper key de-bouncing technique should be applied.
» Programmable Interface (PPI): Programmable Peripheral
Peripheral
Interface devices are used for extending the I/O capabilities of processors/
controllers.

» Most of the processors/ controllers provide very limited number of I/O and data
ports.

» A programmable peripheral interface device expands the I/O capabilities of the

processor/ controller. 8255A is a popular PPI device for 8-bit processors/
controllers.

» 8255A supports 24 I/O pins, and these I/O pins can be grouped as either three 8-
bit parallel ports (Port A, Port B and Port C) or two 8-bit parallel ports (Port A
and Port B) with Port C in any one of the following configurations:

» (1) As 8 individual I/O pins

» (2) Two 4-bit ports; namely Port CUPPER (Cu) and Port CLOWER (CL).
» This is configured by manipulating the control register of 8255A. The control
register holds the configuration for Port A, Port B and Port C.

» The bit details of control register is given in the following Figure:

» The following Figure illustrates the generic interfacing of a 8255A device with
an 8-bit processor/ controller with 16-bit address bus (Lower order Address bus
is multiplexed with data bus).
 COMMUNICATION INTERFACE
» Communication Interface is essential for
communicating with various subsystems of the embedded system and
with the external world.

» For an embedded product, the communication interface can be viewed in two

different perspectives –

» Device/ Board level communication interface (Onboard

Communication
Interface)

» Product level communication interface (External Communication Interface)

» Device/ Board level communication interface (Onboard Communication
Interface)

» Embedded product is a combination of different types of components (chips/

devices) arranged on a printed circuit board (PCB).

» The communication channel which interconnects the various components within

an embedded product is referred as Device/ Board Level Communication
Interface (Onboard Communication Interface).
 Serial interfaces like I2C, SPI, DART, 1-Wire, etc., and parallel bus
interface are examples of 'Onboard Communication Interface'.
» Product level communication interface (External Communication Interface)

» Some embedded systems are self-contained units and they don't require
any
interaction and data transfer with other sub-systems or external world.

» On the other hand, certain embedded systems may be a part of a large

distributed system and they require interaction and data transfer between
various devices and sub-modules.

» The Product level communication interface' (External Communication Interface

is responsible for data transfer between the embedded system and other
devices or modules. The external communication interface can be –

» a wired medium – Infrared (IR), Bluetooth (BT), Wireless LAN (Wi-Fi), Radio
Frequency waves (RF), GPRS/ 3G/ 4GLTE, etc.

» a wireless media – RS-232C/ RS-422/ RS-485, USB, Ethernet IEEE 1394 port,
Parallel port, CF-II interface, SDIO, PCMCIA/ PCIex, etc.
» Onboard Communication Interfaces:

» Onboard Communication Interface refers to the different communication

channels/ buses for interconnecting the various integrated circuits and other
peripherals within the embedded system.

» Inter Integrated Circuit (I2C) Interfaces

» Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) Bus

» Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART)

» 1-Wire Interface

» Parallel Interface
» Inter Integrated Circuit (I2C) Bus: The Inter Integrated Circuit Bus (I2C-
Pronounced 'I square C') is a synchronous bidirectional half duplex (one-
directional communication at a given point of time) two wire serial interface
bus.

» The concept of I2C bus was developed by 'Philips Semiconductors' in the early
1980s. The original intention of I2C was to provide an easy way of connection
between a microprocessor/ microcontroller system and the peripheral chips in
television sets.

» The I2C bus comprise of two bus lines, namely; Serial Clock-SCL and Serial
Data-SDA.
 SCL line is responsible for generating synchronization clock pulses.
 SDA is responsible for transmitting the serial data across devices.
» I2C bus is a shared bus system to which many number of I2C devices can be
connected.

» Devices connected to the I2C bus can act as either 'Master' device or 'Slave'
device.
 The 'Master' device is responsible for controlling the communication by
initiating/ terminating data transfer, sending data and generating necessary
synchronization clock pulses.
 'Slave' devices wait for the commands from the master and respond upon
receiving the commands.

» 'Master' and 'Slave' devices can act as either transmitter or receiver; regardless
whether a master is acting as transmitter or receiver, the synchronization clock
signal is generated by the 'Master' device only.
 I2C supports multi-masters on the same bus.
»

» The following Figure shows bus interface diagram, which illustrates

the
connection of master and slave devices on the I2C bus.
» The sequence of operations for communicating with an I2C slave device is
listed below:

1. The master device pulls the clock line (SCL) of the bus to 'HIGH ‘

2. The master device pulls the data line (SDA) 'LOW', when the SCL line is at
logic 'HIGH' (This is the 'Start' condition for data transfer)

3. The master device sends the address (7-bit or 10-bit wide) of the 'slave' device
to which it wants to communicate, over the SDA line. Clock pulses are
generated at the SCL line for synchronizing the bit reception by the slave
device. The MSB of the data is always transmitted first. The data in the bus is
valid during the 'HIGH' period of the clock signal

4. The master device sends the Read or Write bit (Bit value = 1 Read operation;
Bit value = 0 Write operation) according to the requirement
5. The master device waits for the acknowledgement bit from the slave device

6. The slave device with the address requested by the master device responds by
sending an acknowledge bit (Bit value = 1) over the SDA line

7. Upon receiving the acknowledge bit, the master device sends the 8-bit data to
the slave device over SDA line, if the requested operation is 'Write to device'.
If the requested operation is 'Read from device', the slave device sends data to
the master over the SDA line

8. The master device waits for the acknowledgement bit from the device upon
byte transfer complete for a write operation and sends an acknowledge bit to
the Slave device for a read operation

9. The master device terminates the transfer by pulling the SDA line ‘HIGH'
when the clock line SCL is at logic 'HIGH' (Indicating the 'STOP' condition).
» Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI): Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) is
asynchronous bi-directional full duplex four-wire serial interface bus. The
concept of SPI was introduced by Motorola.

» SPI is a single master multi-slave system. It is possible to have a system where

more than one SPI device can be master, provided the condition only one
master device is active at any given point of time, is satisfied.

» SPI requires four signal lines for communication. They are:

» Master Out Slave In (MOSI): Signal line carrying the data from master to
slave
device. It is also known as Slave Input/Slave Data In (SI/SDI).

» Master In Slave Out (MISO): Signal line carrying the data from slave to
master
device. It is also known as Slave Output (SO/ SDO).

» Serial Clock (SCL): Signal line carrying the clock signals

» Slave Select (SS): Signal line for slave device select. It is an active low signal.
» The bus interface diagram is shown in the following Figure, illustrates the
connection of master and slave devices on the SPI bus.
» The master device is responsible for generating the clock signal. It selects the required
slave device by asserting the corresponding slave device's slave select signal 'LOW'.
The data out line (MISO) of all the slave devices when not selected floats at high
impedance state.

» SPI works on the principle of 'Shift Register'. The master and slave devices contain a
special shift register for the data to transmit or receive. The size of the shift register is
device dependent. Normally it is a multiple of 8.

» During transmission from the master to slave, the data in the master's shift register is
shifted out to the MOSI pin and it enters the shift register of the slave device through
the MOSI pin of the slave device. At the same time, the shifted out data bit from the
slave device's shift register enters the shift register of the master device through MISO
pin. In summary, the shift registers of 'master' and 'slave' devices form a circular buffer.

» When compared to I2C, SPI bus is most suitable for applications requiring transfer of
data in 'streams'. The only limitation is SPI doesn’t support an acknowledgement
mechanism.
» Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART): Universal
Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) based data transmission is an
asynchronous form of serial data transmission.

» UART based serial data transmission doesn't require a clock signal to

synchronize the transmitting end arid receiving end for transmission. Instead it
relies upon the pre-defined agreement between the transmitting device and
receiving device.

» The serial communication settings (Baud rate, number of bits per byte, parity,
number of start bits and stop bit and flow control) for both transmitter and
receiver should be set as identical.

» The start and stop of communication is indicated through inserting special bits
in the data stream.
» While sending a byte of data, a start bit is added first and a stop bit is added at
the end of the bit stream. The least significant bit of the data byte follows the
'start' bit.

» The 'start' bit informs the receiver that a data byte is about to arrive. The
receiver device starts polling its 'receive line' as per the baud rate settings.

» If the baud rate is 'x' bits per second, the time slot available for one bit is 1/x
seconds.

» The receiver unit polls the receiver line at exactly half of the time slot available
for the bit.
» If parity is enabled for communication, the UART of the transmitting device
adds a parity bit (bit value is 1 for odd number of 1s in the transmitted bit
stream and 0 for even number of 1s). .

» The UART of the receiving device calculates the parity of the bits received and
compares it with the received parity bit for error checking.

» The UART of the receiving device discards the 'Start', 'Stop' and 'Parity' bit
from the received bit stream and converts the received serial bit data to a word.

» For proper communication, the 'Transmit line' of the sending device should be
connected to the 'Receive line' of the receiving device.
» The following Figure illustrates the same.

» In addition to the serial data transmission function, UART provides hardware

handshaking signal support for controlling the serial data flow.

» UART chips are available from different semiconductor manufacturers.

» National Semiconductor's 8250 UART chip is considered

as the standard setting UART. It was used in the original
IBM PC.
» 1-Wire Interface: 1-wire interface is an asynchronous half-duplex
communication protocol developed by Maxim Dallas Semiconductor. It is also
known as Dallas 1-Wire® protocol. It makes use of only a single signal line
(wire) called DQ for communication and follows the master-slave
communication model.

» One of the key feature of 1-wire bus is that it allows power to be sent along the
signal wire as well.

» The 1-wire slave devices incorporate internal capacitor (typically of the order of
800 pF) to power the device from the signal line.

» The 1-wire interface supports a single master and one or more slave devices on
the bus.
» The bus interface diagram shown in the following Figure illustrates the
connection of master and slave devices on the 1-wire bus.

» Every 1-wire device contains a

globally unique 64-bit
identification number stored within
it. This unique identification
number can be used for addressing
individual devices present on the
bus in case there are multiple slave
devices

» The identifier has three parts: an

8-bit family code, a 48-bit serial
number
and an 8-bit CRC computed from the
» The sequence of operation for communicating with a 1-wire slave device is
listed below:
1. The master device sends a 'Reset' pulse on the 1-wire bus.

2. The slave device(s) present on the bus respond with a 'Presence' pulse.

3. The master device sends a ROM command (Net Address Command followed by the
64-bit address of the device). This addresses the slave device(s) to which it wants to
initiate a communication.

4. The master device sends a read/ write function command to read/ write the internal
memory or register of the slave device.

5. The master initiates a Read data/ Write data from the device or to the device.

» All communication over the 1-wire bus is master initiated.

» The communication over the 1-wire bus is divided into timeslots of

60
microseconds for regular speed mode of operation (16.3Kbps).
» Parallel Interface: The on-board parallel interface is normally used for
communicating with peripheral devices which are memory mapped to the host
of the system.

» The host processor/ controller of the embedded system contains a parallel bus
and the device which supports parallel bus can directly connect to this bus
system.

» The communication through the parallel bus is controlled by the control signal
interface between the device and the host.

» The 'Control Signals' for communication includes 'Read/ Write' signal and
device select signal.

» The device normally contains a device select line and the device becomes
active only when this line is asserted by the host processor.
» The direction of data transfer (Host to Device or Device to Host) can be
controlled through the control signal lines for 'Read' and 'Write'. Only the host
processor has control over the 'Read' and 'Write' control signals.

» The device is memory mapped to the host processor and a range of address is
assigned to it. An address decoder circuit is used for generating the chip select
signal for the device.

» The processor then can read or write from or to the device by asserting the
corresponding control line (RD\ and WR\ respectively). Strict timing
characteristics are followed for parallel communication.

» As mentioned earlier, parallel communication is host processor initiated. If a

device wants to initiate the communication, it can inform the same to the
processor through interrupts.
» The width of the parallel interface is determined by the data bus width of the
host processor. It can be 4-bit, 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit or 64-bit, etc. The bus width
supported by the device should be same as that of the host processor.

» Parallel data communication offers the highest speed for data transfer.

» The bus interface diagram shown in the following Figure, illustrates the
interfacing of devices through parallel interface.
» External Communication
Interfaces:
» The External Communication Interface refers to the different communication
channels/ buses used by the embedded system to communicate with the
external world.
» RS-232 C & RS-485

» Universal Serial Bus (USB)

» IEEE 1394 (Firewire)

» Infrared (IrDA)

» Bluetooth (BT)

» Wi-Fi

» ZigBee

» General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), 3G, 4G, LTE

» RS-232 C & RS-485: RS-232 C (Recommended Standard number 232, revision
C) from the Electronic Industry Association is a legacy, full duplex, wired,
asynchronous serial communication interface.

» The RS-232 interface is developed by the Electronics Industries Association

(EIA) during the early 1960s. RS-232 extends the UART communication
signals for external data communication.

» UART uses the standard TTL/ CMOS logic (Logic 'High' corresponds to bit
value 1 and Logic 'Low' corresponds to bit value 0) for bit transmission;
whereas RS-232 follows the EIA standard for bit transmission.
 As per the EIA standard, a logic '0' is represented with voltage between +3
and +25V and a logic' 1' is represented with voltage between -3 and -25V.
In EIA standard, logic '0' is known as 'Space' and logic '1' as 'Mark'.
 The RS-232 interface defines various handshaking and control signals for
communication apart from the 'Transmit' and. 'Receive' signal lines for data
» The RS-232 interface defines various handshaking and control signals for
communication apart from the 'Transmit' and. 'Receive' signal lines for data
communication.

» RS-232 supports two different types of connectors:

 DB-9: 9-Pin connector and
 DB-25: 25-Pin connector.

» The following Figure illustrates the connector details for DB-9 and DB-25.
» RS-232 is a point-to-point communication interface and the device involved in
RS-232 communication are called 'Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)' and 'Data
Communication Equipment (DCE)'.

» The Data Terminal Ready (DTR) signal is activated by DTE when it is ready to
accept data. The Data Set Ready (DSR) is activated by DCE when it is ready
for establishing a communication link. DTR should be in the activated state
before the activation of DSR.

» The Data Carrier Detect (DCD) control signal is used by the DCE to indicate the
DTE that a good signal is being received.
» RS-232 supports only point-to-point communication and not suitable for multi-
drop communication.
• It uses single ended data transfer technique for signal transmission and thereby
more susceptible to noise and it greatly reduces the operating distance.

» RS-422 is another serial interface standard from EIA for differential data
communication. It supports data rates up to l00Kbps and distance up to 400 ft.

» RS-422 supports multi-drop communication with one transmitter device and

receiver devices up to 10.

» RS-485 is the enhanced version of RS-422 and it supports multi-drop

communication with up to 32 transmitting devices (drivers) and 32 receiving
devices on the bus. The communication between devices in the bus uses the
'addressing' mechanism to identify slave devices.
Universal Serial Bus (USB): Universal Serial Bus is a wired high
speed serial bus for data communication.

» The first version of USB (USB 1.0) was released in 1995 and was
created by the USB core group members consisting of Intel,
Microsoft, IBM, Compaq, Digital and Northern Telecom.

» The USB communication system follows a star topology with a

USB host at the centre and one or more USB peripheral devices/
USB hosts connected to it.

» A USB 2.0 host can support connections up to 127, including

slave peripheral devices and other USB hosts.
» The following Figure illustrates the star topology for USB device
connection.

» USB transmits data in packet format.

» Each data packet has a standard format.

» The USB communication is a host initiated

one.

» The USB host contains a host controller

which is responsible for controlling the data
communication, including establishing
connectivity with USB slave devices,
packetizing and formatting the data.
» There are different standards for implementing the USB Host Control interface;
namely Open Host Control Interface (OHCI) and Universal Host Control
Interface (UHCI).

» The physical connection between a USB peripheral device and master device is
established with a USB cable. The USB cable in USB 2.0 supports
communication distance of up to 5 meters.

» The USB 2.0 standard uses two different types of connector at the ends of the
USB cable for connecting the USB peripheral device and host device.
 'Type A' connector is used for upstream connection (connection with host) and Type
B connector is used for downstream connection (connection with slave device).
 The USB connector present in desktop PCs or laptops are examples for 'Type A'
USB connector.

 Both Type A and Type B connectors contain 4 pins for communication.

» The Pin details for the connectors are listed in the table given below.

Pin No. Pin Name Description

1 VBUS Carries power (5V)
2 D– Differential data carrier line
3 D+ Differential data carrier line
4 GND Ground signal line

» USB uses differential signals for data transmission. It improves the noise
immunity.

» USB interface has the ability to supply power to the connecting devices. Two
connection lines (Ground and Power) of the USB interface are dedicated for
carrying power. It can supply power up to 500 rnA at 5 V.
» USB supports four different types of data transfers, namely; Control, Bulk,
Isochronous and Interrupt.

» Control transfer is used by USB system software to query, configure and issue
commands to the USB device.

» Bulk transfer is used for sending a block of data to a device. Bulk transfer
supports error checking and correction.
 Transferring data to a printer is an example for bulk transfer.

» Isochronous data transfer is used for real-time data communication. In

Isochronous transfer, data is transmitted as streams in real-time. Isochronous
transfer doesn't support error checking and retransmission of data in case of
any transmission loss.
 All streaming devices like audio devices and medical equipment for data
collection make use of the isochronous transfer.
» Interrupt transfer is used for transferring small amount of data.

» Interrupt transfer mechanism makes use of polling technique to see whether the
USB device has any data to send.

» The frequency of polling is determined by the USB device and it varies from
1
to 255 milliseconds.
 Devices like Mouse and Keyboard, which transmits fewer amounts of data,
uses Interrupt transfer.
IEEE 1394 (Firewire): IEEE 1394 is a wired isochronous high speed serial
communication bus. It is also known as High Performance Serial Bus
(HPSB).

» The research on 1394 was started by Apple Inc. in 1985 and the standard for
this was coined by IEEE.

» The implementation of it is available from

various players with different names.
 Apple Inc's implementation of 1394 protocol is popularly
known as
Firewire.
 i.LINK is the 1394 implementation from Sony Corporation
 Lynx is the implementation from Texas Instruments.
» 1394 supports peer-to-peer connection and point-to-multipoint communication
allowing 63 devices to be connected on the bus in a tree topology.
• 1394 is a wired serial interface and it can support a cable length of up to 15
feet for interconnection.

» There are two differential data transfer lines A and B per connector.

» In a 1394 cable, normally the differential lines of A are connected to B (TPA+ to

TPB+ and TPA-to TPB-) and vice versa.

» 1394 is a popular communication interface for connecting embedded devices

like Digital Camera, Camcorder, Scanners to desktop computers for data
transfer and storage.
» Unlike USB interface (except USB OTG), IEEE 1394 doesn't require a host for
communicating between devices.
 For example, you can directly connect a scanner with a printer for printing.

» The data- rate supported by 1394 is far higher than the one supported by
USB2.0 interface.

» The 1394 hardware implementation is much costlier than USB implementation.

Infrared (IrDA): Infrared is a serial, half duplex, line of sight based wireless
technology for data communication between devices.

» IrDA is in use from the olden days of communication and you may be very
familiar with it.
 The remote control of your TV, VCD player, etc., works on Infrared data
communication principle.

» Infrared communication technique uses infrared waves of the electromagnetic

spectrum for transmitting the data.

» IrDA supports point-point and point-to-multipoint communication, provided all

devices involved in the communication are within the line of sight.

» The typical communication range for IrDA lies in the range l0 cm to 1 m.

The
range can be increased by increasing the transmitting power of the IR device.
» IR supports data rates ranging from 9600bits/second to 16Mbps.

» Depending on the speed of data transmission IR is classified into Serial IR

(SIR), Medium IR (MIR), Fast IR (FIR), Very Fast IR (VFIR) and Ultra Fast
IR (UFIR).
 SIR supports transmission rates ranging from 9600bps to 115.2kbps.
 MIR supports data rates of 0.576Mbps and 1.152Mbps.
 FIR supports data rates up to 4Mbps.
 VFIR is designed to support high data rates up to l6Mbps.
 The UFIR supports up to 96Mbps.
» IrDA communication involves a transmitter unit for transmitting the data over IR
and a receiver for receiving the data.

» Infrared Light Emitting Diode (LED) is the IR source for transmitter and at the
receiving end a photodiode acts as the receiver.

» Both transmitter and receiver unit will be present in each device supporting
IrDA communication for bidirectional data transfer. Such IR units are known
as 'Transceiver'.

» Certain devices like a TV require control always require unidirectional

communication and so they contain either the transmitter or receiver unit (The
remote control unit contains the transmitter unit and TV contains the receiver
unit).
Bluetooth (BT): Bluetooth is a low cost, low power, short range
wireless technology for data and voice communication.

» Bluetooth was first proposed by 'Ericsson' in 1994.

» Bluetooth operates at 2.4GHz of the Radio Frequency spectrum and uses the
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) technique for communication.

» Literally it supports a data rate of up to 1Mbps and a range of approximately 30

to 100 feet (version dependent) for data communication.
» Like IrDA, Bluetooth communication also has two essential parts; a physical
link part and a protocol part.
 The physical link is responsible for the physical transmission of data
between devices supporting Bluetooth communication. The physical link
works on the wireless principle making use of RF waves for
communication. Bluetooth enabled devices essentially contain a Bluetooth
wireless radio for the transmission and reception of data.
 The protocol part is responsible for defining the rules of communication.
The rules governing the Bluetooth communication is implemented in the
'Bluetooth protocol stack'.
» Each Bluetooth device will have a 48-bit unique identification number.
Bluetooth communication follows packet based data transfer.

» Bluetooth supports point-to-point (device to device) and point-to-multipoint

(device to multiple device broadcasting) wireless communication.

» The point-to-point communication follows the master slave relationship.

A
Bluetooth device can function as either master or slave.

» When a network is formed with one Bluetooth device as master and more than
one device as slaves, it is called a Piconet.

» A Piconet supports a maximum of seven slave devices.

» Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi or Wireless Fidelity is the popular wireless communication
technique for networked communication of devices.

» Wi-Fi follows the IEEE 802.11 standard. Wi-Fi is intended for network
communication and supports Internet Protocol (IP) based communication. It is
essential to have device identities in a multi-point communication to address
specific devices for data communication.

» In an IP based communication each device is identified by an IP address,

which is unique to each device on the network.

» Wi-Fi based communications require an intermediate agent called Wi-Fi

router/ Wireless Access point to manage the communications.
 The Wi-Fi router is responsible for restricting the access to a network,
assigning IP address to devices on the network, routing data packets to the
intended devices on the network.
» Wi-Fi enabled devices contain a wireless adaptor for transmitting and receiving
data in the form of radio signals through an antenna. The hardware part of it is
known as Wi-Fi Radio.

» Wi-Fi operates at 2.4GHz or 5GHz of radio spectrum and they co-exist with
other ISM band devices like Bluetooth.

» The following Figure illustrates the typical interfacing of devices in a Wi-Fi

network.
» ZigBee: ZigBee is a low power, low cost, wireless network communication
protocol based on the IEEE 802.15.4-2006 standard.

» ZigBee is targeted for low power, low data rate and secure applications for
Wireless Personal Area Networking (WPAN).

» The ZigBee specifications support a robust mesh network containing multiple

nodes. This networking strategy makes the network reliable by permitting
messages to travel through a number of different paths to get from one node to
another.

» ZigBee operates worldwide at the unlicensed bands of Radio spectrum, mainly

at 2.400 to 2.484 GHz, 902 to 928 MHz and 868.0 to 868.6 MHz.

» ZigBee Supports an operating distance of up to 100 meters and a data rate of

20 to 250Kbps.
» In the ZigBee terminology, each ZigBee device falls under any one of the
following ZigBee device category:

» ZigBee Coordinator (ZC)/ Network Coordinator: The ZigBee coordinator

acts as the root of the ZigBee network. The ZC is responsible for initiating
the ZigBee network and it has the capability to store information about the
network.

» ZigBee Router (ZR)/ Full Function Device (FFD): Responsible for passing
information from device to another device or to another ZR.

» ZigBee End Device (ZED)/ Reduced Function Device (RFD): End device
containing ZigBee functionality for data communication. It can talk only
with a ZR or ZC and doesn't have the capability to act as a mediator for
transferring data from one device to another.
» The following Figure gives an overview of ZC, ZED and ZR in a ZigBee
network:
» General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), 3G, 4G, LTE: General Packet Radio
Service is a communication technique for transferring data over a mobile
communication network like GSM.

» Data is sent as packets in GPRS communication. The transmitting device splits

the data into several related packets.

» At the receiving end the data is re-constructed by combining the received data
packets.

» GPRS supports a theoretical maximum transfer rate of 171.2kbps.

» In GPRS communication, the radio channel is concurrently shared between

several users instead of dedicating a radio channel to a cell phone user. The
GPRS communication divides the channel into 8 timeslots and transmits data
over the available channel.
» GPRS supports Internet Protocol (IP), Point to Point Protocol (PPP) and X.25
protocols for communication.

» GPRS is mainly used by mobile enabled embedded devices for data

communication. The device should support the necessary GPRS hardware like
GPRS modem and GPRS radio.

» To accomplish GPRS based communication, the carrier network also should

have support for GPRS communication. GPRS is an old technology and it is
being replaced by new generation data communication techniques like EDGE,
High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA), etc. which offers higher
bandwidths for communication.
 EMBEDDED FIRMWARE
» Embedded firmware refers to the control algorithm (Program instructions) and
or the configuration settings that an embedded system developer dumps into
the code (Program) memory of the embedded system. It is an un- avoidable
part of an embedded system.

» There are various methods available for developing the embedded firmware.
They are listed below:

1. Write the program in high level languages like Embedded C/ C++ using an
Integrated Development Environment (IDE)

» The IDE will contain a editor, compiler, linker, debugger, simulator, etc.
» IDEs are different for different family of processors/ controllers.

» For example, Keil microvision3 IDE is used for all family member of 8051
microcontroller, since it contains the generic 8051 compiler C51.

2. Write the program in Assembly language using the instructions supported by

your application's target processor/ controller.

» The instruction set for each family of processor/ controller is different and the
program written in either of the methods given above should be converted into
a processor understandable machine code before loading it into the program
memory.

» The process of converting the program written in either a high level language or
processor/ controller specific Assembly code to machine readable binary code
is called 'HEX File Creation'.
» The methods used for 'HEX File Creation' is different depending on the
programming techniques used.

» If the program is written in Embedded C/ C++ using an IDE, the cross

compiler included in the IDE converts it into corresponding processor/
controller understandable 'HEX File'.

» If you are following the Assembly language based programming technique,

you can use the utilities supplied by the processor/ controller vendors to
convert the source code into 'HEX File'.

» Also third party tools are available, which may be of free of cost, for this
conversion.
» For a beginner in the embedded software field, it is strongly recommended to
use the high level language based development technique. The reasons for this
being:

» Writing codes in a high level language is easy, the code written in high level
language is highly portable which means you can use the same code to run
on different processor/ controller with little or less modification. The only
thing you need to do is re-compile the program with the required processor's
IDE, after replacing the include files for that particular processor.

» Also the programs written in high level languages are not developer
dependent. Any skilled programmer can trace out the functionalities of the
program by just having a look at the program. It will be much easier if the
source code contains necessary comments and documentation lines. It is
very easy to debug and the overall system development time will
be
reduced to a greater extent. 168
» The embedded software development process in assembly language is tedious
and time consuming.
• The developer needs to know about all the instruction sets of the processor/
controller or at least s/he should carry an instruction set reference manual with
her/ him. A programmer using assembly language technique writes the
program according to his/ her view and taste. Often he/ she may be writing a
method or functionality which can be achieved through a single instruction as
an experienced person's point of view, by two or three instructions in his/ her
own style. So the program will be highly dependent on the developer. It is
very difficult for a second person to understand the code written in Assembly
even if it is well documented.
 OTHER SYSTEM COMPONENTS
» The other system components refer to the components/ circuits/ ICs
which
are necessary for the proper functioning of the embedded system.

» Some of these circuits may be essential for the proper functioning of the
processor/ controller and firmware execution.

» Watchdog timer, Reset IC (or passive circuit), brown-out protection IC (or

passive circuit) etc., are examples of circuits/ ICs which are essential for the
proper functioning of the processors/ controllers. Some of the controllers or
SoCs, integrate these components within a single IC and doesn't require such
components externally connected to the chip for proper functioning.
 Depending on the system requirement, the embedded system may include
other integrated circuits for performing specific functions, level translator ICs
for interfacing circuits with different logic levels, etc.
» Reset Circuit: The reset circuit is essential to ensure that the device is not
operating at a voltage level where the device is not guaranteed to operate,
during system power ON.

» The reset signal brings the internal registers and the different hardware systems
of the processor/ controller to a known state and starts the firmware execution
from the reset vector (Normally from vector address 0x0000 for conventional
processors/ controllers.

» The reset signal can be either active high or active low.

» Since the processor operation is synchronized to a clock signal, the reset pulse
should be wide enough to give time for the clock oscillator to stabilize before
the internal reset state starts.
» The reset signal to the processor can be applied at power ON
through an external passive reset circuit comprising a Capacitor
and Resistor or through a standard Reset IC like MAX810 from
Maxim Dallas. Select the reset IC based on the type of reset
signal and logic level (CMOS/ TTL) supported by the processor/
controller in use.

» Some microprocessors /controllers contain built-in internal reset

circuitry and they don't require external reset circuitry.
» The following Figure illustrates a resistor capacitor based passive
reset circuit for active high and low configurations. The reset
pulse width can be adjusted by changing the resistance value R
and capacitance value C.
Brown-out Protection Circuit: Brown-out protection circuit prevents the
processor/ controller from unexpected program execution behavior when the
supply voltage to the processor/ controller falls below a specified voltage.

» It is essential for battery powered devices since there are greater chances for the
battery voltage to drop below the required threshold. The processor behavior
may not be predictable if the supply voltage falls below the recommended
operating voltage. It may lead to situations like data corruption.

» A brown-out protection circuit holds the processor/ controller in reset state,

when operating voltage falls below the threshold, until it rises above the
threshold voltage.

» Certain processors/ controllers support built in brown-out protection circuit

which monitors the supply voltage internally.
» If the processor/ controller don’t integrate a built-in brown-out protection circuit,
the same can be implemented using external passive circuits or supervisor ICs.

» The following Figure illustrates a brown-out circuit implementation using

Zener diode and transistor for processor/ controller with active low Reset logic.

» The Zener diode, Dz, and transistor, Q, forms the

heart of this circuit. The transistor conducts
always when the supply voltage VCC is greater
than that of the sum of VBE and VZ (Zener
voltage). The transistor stops conducting when
the supply voltage falls below the sum of VBE and
VZ. Select the Zener diode with required voltage
for setting the low threshold value for VCC.
» Oscillator Unit: A microprocessor/ microcontroller is a digital device made up
of digital combinational and sequential circuits.
• The instruction execution of a microprocessor/ controller occurs in
synchronization with a clock signal. The oscillator unit of the embedded
system is responsible for generating the precise clock for the processor.

» Certain processors/ controllers integrate a built-in oscillator unit and simply

require an external ceramic resonator/ quartz crystal for producing the
necessary clock signals. Quartz crystals and ceramic resonators are equivalent
in operation, however they possess physical difference.

» Certain devices may not contain built-in oscillator unit and require the clock
pulses to be generated and supplied externally.
» The speed of operation of a processor is primarily dependent on the clock
frequency. However we cannot increase the clock frequency blindly for
increasing the speed of execution. The logical circuits lying inside the
processor always have an upper threshold value for the maximum clock at
which the system can run, beyond which the system becomes unstable and non
functional.

» The total system power consumption is directly proportional to the clock

frequency. The power consumption increases with increase in clock frequency.

» The accuracy of program execution depends on the accuracy of the clock signal.
» The following Figure illustrates the usage of quartz crystal/ ceramic resonator
and external oscillator chip for clock generation.
» Real-Time Clock (RTC): Real-Time Clock is a system component responsible
for keeping track of time. RTC holds information like current time (In hours,
minutes and seconds) in 12-hour/ 24-hour format, date, month, year, day of the
week, etc. and supplies timing reference to the system.

» RTC is intended to function even in the absence of power.

» RTCs are available in the form of Integrated Circuits from different

semiconductor manufacturers like Maxim/Dallas, ST Microelectronics etc.

» The RTC chip contains a microchip for holding the time and date related
information and backup battery cell for functioning in the absence of power, in
a single IC package. The RTC chip is interfaced to the processor or controller
of the embedded system.
» For Operating System based embedded devices, a timing reference is essential
for synchronizing the operations of the OS kernel.

» The RTC can interrupt the OS .kernel by asserting the interrupt line of the
processor/controller to which the RTC interrupt line is connected. The OS
kernel identifies the interrupt in terms of the Interrupt Request (IRQ) number
generated by an interrupt controller. One IRQ can be assigned to the RTC
interrupt and the kernel can perform necessary operations like system date time
updating, managing software timers etc when an RTC timer tick interrupt
occurs.

» The RTC can be configured to interrupt the processor at predefined intervals or

to interrupt the processor when the RTC register reaches a specified value
(used as alarm interrupt).
» Watchdog Timer: In desktop Windows systems, if we feel our application is
behaving in an abnormally or if the system hangs up, we have the 'Ctrl + Alt +
Del' to come out of the situation. What it happens to embedded system?

» We have a watchdog to monitor the firmware execution and reset the system
processor/ microcontroller when the program execution hangs up. A watchdog
timer, or simply a watchdog, is a hardware timer for monitoring the firmware
execution.

» Depending on the internal implementation, the watchdog timer increments or

decrements a free running counter with each clock pulse and generates a reset
signal to reset the processor if the count reaches zero for a down counting
watchdog, or the highest count value for an up counting watchdog.
» If the watchdog counter is in the enabled state, the firmware can write a zero (for
up counting watchdog implementation) to it before starting the execution of a
piece of code and the watchdog will start counting.

» If the firmware execution doesn't complete due to malfunctioning, within the

time required by the watchdog to reach the maximum count, the counter will
generate a reset pulse and this will reset the processor.

» If the firmware execution completes before the expiration of the watchdog, you
can reset the count by writing a 0 (for an up counting watchdog timer) to the
watchdog timer register.
» If the processor/ controller doesn't contain a built in watchdog timer, the same
can be implemented using an external watchdog timer IC circuit.

» The external watchdog timer uses hardware logic for enabling/ disabling,
resetting the watchdog count, etc., instead of the firmware based 'writing' to the
status and watchdog timer register.

» The microprocessor supervisor IC DS 1232 integrates a hardware watchdog

timer in it.
» The following Figure illustrates the implementation of the external watchdog
timer based microprocessor based supervisor circuit for a small embedded
system.