TESTING OF MATERIALS–

Part I

TENSILE TESTING

Conducted by:
Squadron Leader Sameera Wijesena
 TESTING OF MATERIAL
 Mechanical properties of a material must be known before that material can be
incorporated into any design
 Mechanical property data is compiled from extensive material testing
 Various tests are used to determine the actual values of material properties
under different loading applications and test conditions

Cont…
 TENSILE TESTING
 Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials
science test
 A sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure

Cont…
TENSILE TESTING

Cont…
 Tensile Testing

The following MATERIAL PROPERTIES can be

evaluated / determined by TENSILE TESTING:
• STRENGTH
• DUCTILITY
• ELASTICITY
• STIFFNESS
Material Properties

STRENGTH - the greatest stress that the material can withstand prior to
failure.
DUCTILITY - a material property that allows it to undergo considerable
plastic deformation under a load before failure.
ELASTICITY - a material property that allows it to retain its original
dimensions after removal of a deforming load.
STIFFNESS - a material property that allows a material to withstand high
stress without great strain.
The Tensile Tester

A machine which applies a tensile force (a force

applied in opposite directions) to the specimen, and
then measures that force and also the elongation:
This machine usually uses a hydraulic cylinder to
create the force. The applied force is determined by
system pressure, which can be accurately measured.
The Tensile Tester

Applied Force is hydraulic pressure times the area of the

cylinder’s piston.
F = PRESSURE x AREA
= 0.6N/mm2 x 1962.25mm2
=1177.35 N
Tensile Tester Data Acquisition Unit
Stress - Strain Curve
THE SAMPLE

Area of measured test

Marking the sample:
A precision punch with
two points exactly 2.000”
apart is used to mark the
sample in the tested
region.

This establishes the

original length.
This device, called an
EXTENSOMETER,
measures the distance
between the two prongs
very precisely while the
test is in progress.
Before After
A Stainless Steel
sample is loaded in
the tester.
Terms

Necking: The localized decrease in diameter in a specimen near the rupture

point.
Elastic Deformation Region: The area of a stress - strain curve where the
specimen will deform under load, yet return to its original shape when the load
is removed.
Plastic Deformation: Deformation that occurs once the object has been
stressed past its elastic limit. The deformation is no longer reversible.
 Necking

“Necking” occurs as the

sample leaves the elastic
deformation region and begins
to deform plastically.
The classic cup & cone
shape of a fairly ductile
tensile fracture is visible
here.
Upon completion of the test, the sample is reassembled and
final measurements for total elongation and minimum
diameter are made using a vernier caliper.
For maximum precision, the points of the vernier caliper must be
placed exactly at the center of the marks made by the punch prior to
the test.
Compare the material properties of these three metal
samples.

All three failed under tension

 PLASTIC DEFORMATION REGION

ELASTIC DEFORMATION REGION

The point of departure from the elastic deformation
region is known as the “yield point.”

In the elastic region, the slope of this line is the

material’s Modulus of Elasticity.
Stress - Strain Plot
 TENSILE TESTING
 The results from the test are commonly used to,
◦ select a material for an application
◦ quality control,
◦ to predict how a material will react under other types of forces.
 Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile
strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area

Cont…
 TENSILE TESTING
From measurements such as,
◦ ultimate tensile strength
◦ maximum elongation
◦ reduction in area
 Following properties can also be determined
 Young's modulus
 Poisson's ratio
 Yield strength
 Strain-hardening characteristics

Cont…
 REVISION
 We have learnt
◦ Requirement of testing material
◦ Tensile testing procedure
◦ Use of tensile testing
 QUESTIONS
 What is the use of material testing?
 Briefly explain the tensile testing procedure
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ARE DESIGNED TO CARRY A LOAD
OR TO RESIST STRESS AND A SINGLE MEMBER MAY BE SUBJECTED TO
A COMBINATION OF STRESSES DURING FLIGHT.
 Types of Loading

Shear Torsion
Tensile Compressive
STRESS

The stress means in mathematically express the internal

opposite force acting per unit area it’s called STRESS

There are 5 types of stress

Compression
Compression stress is the resistance to an
external force that tries to push an object
together
Torsion
A torsional stress is applied to a material when
it is twisted. Torsion is actually a combination
of both tension and compression

Bending

If a beam is anchored at one end and a load

applied at the other end, the beam will bend in
the direction of the applied load.

Shear

A shear stress attempts to slice, (or shear) a body apart.

 Tension

Tensile stress describes the effect of a force that

tends to pull an object apart

HOOP STRESS
 An aircraft which has its fuselage pressurised inside to allow the carriage
of passengers at altitude, will have other stresses acting on the fuselage
skin. The circumferential load about the fuselage is known as hoop stress
and resisted by the fuselage frames and tension in the so called stressed
skin. The longitudinal (axial) load along the fuselage is also resisted by
tension in the skin and by the longerons and stringers.
 STRAIN
Deformation Couse by the applied stress it’s called
STRAIN

C
D

A
B
A – Elastic
Limit
STRESS

B – Yield
Point

C – Ultimate
Strain Load
D – Rupture
Or Brake
 TENSILE STRENGTH
 Tensile strength measures the force required to pull something
such as rope, wire, or a structural beam to the point where it
breaks
 The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount
of tensile stress that it can take before failure, for example
breaking

Cont…
 TENSILE STRENGTH
 There are three typical definitions of tensile
strength:
◦ Yield strength - The stress a material can
withstand without permanent deformation.
This is not a sharply defined point. Yield
strength is the stress which will cause a
permanent deformation of 0.2% of the
original dimension
◦ Ultimate strength - The maximum stress a
material can withstand
◦ Breaking strength - The stress coordinate on
the stress-strain curve at the point of rupture

Cont…
 TENSILE STRENGTH
 Calculation - Stress
◦ Tensile strength in a material is obtained by measuring the
maximum load in Newton’s (N), which the test piece is able to
sustain, and dividing by the original cross-sectional area (CSA),
in metres (m), of the specimen
Stress = Load (N)
Original CSA (m2)

◦ SI unit of stress is the N/m2 but kN/m2 or MN/m2 used

◦ Another unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2 but kilo
Pascal’s (kPa) or Mega Pascal’s (MPa) used

Cont…
 TENSILE STRENGTH
 Calculation – Stress (Example)
◦ A steel rod, with a diameter of 5 mm, is loaded in tension with
a force of 400 N. Calculate the tensile stress.

Stress = Load = 400 = 400

Area r2  x 2.5 2

= 20.37 N/mm2

Cont…
 TENSILE STRENGTH
 As the load in the tensile test is increased from zero to a
maximum value, the material extends in length
 The amount of extension, produced by a given load,

allows the amount of induced strain to be calculated

 Calculation - Strain

◦ Strain is calculated by measuring the extension and dividing by

the original length of the material
Strain = Extension
Original Length

Cont…
 TENSILE STRENGTH
 Calculation – Strain(Example)
◦ An aluminium test piece is marked with a 20 mm gauge length.
It is subjected to tensile load until its length becomes 2115
mm. Calculate the induced strain.
Extension = 21.15 – 20 mm = 1.15 mm

Strain = Extension = 1.15

Original length 20

= 0.575 or 5.75%

Cont…
 REVISION
 We have learnt
◦ What is Tensile Strength
◦ Calculation of stress
◦ Calculation of Strain
 QUESTIONS
 Calculate the tensile stress in a steel rod, with a cross-section of 10 mm x 4
mm, when it is subjected to a load of 100 N.
 Calculate the cross-sectional area of a tie rod which, when subjected to a load
of 2100N, has a stress of 60 N/mm2. (1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2)
 A structural member, with a cross-sectional area of 05m2, is subjected to a load
of 10 MN. Calculate the stress in the member in MN/m2 and N/mm2
 A tie 1.5m long under a tensile load of 500 N extends by 12 mm. Calculate the
strain.
 YOUNG’S MODULUS
 Young's modulus is also known as,
◦ tensile modulus
◦ elastic modulus
◦ Bryony's Modulus

 is a measure of the stiffness of an elastic isotropic material and is a quantity

used to characterize materials

 Defined as the ratio of the stress (force per unit area) along an axis over
the strain (ratio of deformation over initial length) along that axis in the range
of stress in which Hooke's law holds

Cont…
 YOUNG’S MODULUS
 SI unit of Young’s Modulus - Pascal (Pa), but often quoted in N/m2, or lbf/in2
 kPa, MPa or GPa and kN/m2, MN/m2 , GN/m2 are also used
 Typical values for Young’s Modulus are:
◦ Steel 210 GN/m2
◦ Aluminium 70 GN/m2
◦ Glass 14 GN/m2
◦ Polypropylene 1.5 GN/m2

Cont…
TENSILE TESTING OF PLASTICS

 Test is conducted in the same way as for metals, but the test piece is usually made
from sheet material

Cont…
 TENSILE TESTING OF PLASTICS
 Although the basic load/extension curve for some plastics is somewhat
similar to metal curves, changes in test temperature or the rate of loading can
have a major effect on the results
 Even though the material under test may be in the elastic range, the specimen
may take some time to return to its original size after the load is removed

Cont…
 COMPRESSION TEST
 Machines for compression testing are often the same as those used for tensile
testing
 Test specimen is in the form of a short cylinder
 The load-deflection or stress-strain graphs in the elastic phase for ductile
materials are similar to that in the tensile test
 Value of E is the same in compression as it is in tension
 Compression testing is seldom used to test metallic or plastic materials except
for cast iron

Cont…
 Compression Testing – Procedure
During a typical compression test, data are collected regarding the
applied load, resultant deformation or deflection, and condition of the
specimen. For brittle materials, the compressive strength is relatively
easy to obtain, showing marked failure. However, for ductile materials,
the compressive strength is generally based on an arbitrary deformation
value. Ductile materials do not exhibit the sudden fractures that brittle
materials present. They tend to buckle and "barrel out".
Barreling or Bulging of a Sample under
Compressive Loads
•Prior to this and any test, the dimensions of the specimen should be
measured with adequate precision using proper instruments. Once
these measurements have been taken and recorded, the specimen
should be loaded into the testing machine.

•In compression testing, and testing in general, care should be taken

to insure that the axis of the specimen is centered and aligned with
the axis of loading.

•Loading rates should be steady and continuous. Rates vary, but a

general figure is 0.005 inches per minute strain rate. Loading rates
typically range from 500-1000 lb/min.
•As in most tests of mechanical properties, the loading rate can
adversely affect the results if you get carried away. Loading
continues at this rate up to approximately one-half of the anticipated
strength and, then, should be reduced to allow for more frequent data
collection. In this way, subtle changes can be observed in the
specimen's behavior.

•As in all of these tests, please observe proper safety procedures.

Obtain and properly wear personal protective equipment. Some of
these materials exhibit violent fractures with explosive results.
 REVISION
 We have learnt
◦ Young’s modulus
◦ Typical values of young’s modulus
◦ Tensile testing of plastics
◦ Compression test
 QUESTIONS
 What is Young’s modulus?
 Explain tensile testing of plastics
 What is a compression test?