Chapter 2: Operating-System

Structures

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Game of Differentiation

 Multiprogramming & Multitasking

 Types of OS:
 Batch OS
 Time Sharing OS
 Distributed OS (multiple central
processors)
 Network OS (LAN)
 Real time OS

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Spooling

 Spooling is an acronym for

simultaneous peripheral operations on
line. Spooling refers to putting data
of various I/O jobs in a buffer. This
buffer is a special area in memory or
hard disk which is accessible to I/O
devices.
 Operating system does the following
activites related to distributed
environment.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
  OS handles I/O device data spooling as
devices have different data access rates.
 OS maintains the spooling buffer which
provides a waiting station where data can
rest while the slower device catches up.
 OS maintains parallel computation because of
spooling process as a computer can perform
I/O in parallel fashion. It becomes possible to
have the computer read data from a tape,
write data to disk and to write out to a tape
printer while it is doing its computing task.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Spooling

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Accessing OS services - System Calls
 Operating system services (reading or writing files for
example) can only be accessed when the CPU is in
supervisor mode, but user programs must run in user
mode.
 The connection can be made through software
interrupts.
 Specifically ,the interrupt table for software interrupts
is initialized by the OS to point to code that changes to
supervisor mode and calls appropriate OS routines.
(The correct routine either be directly determined by
the number of the SW interrupt or by one of the
parameters to the system call.)
 Such a table and the ISRs must be protected by the OS.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Chapter 2: Operating-System Structures
 Operating System Services
 User Operating System Interface
 System Calls
 Types of System Calls
 System Programs
 Operating System Design and Implementation
 Operating System Structure

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Objectives
 To describe the services an operating system provides to
users, processes, and other systems

 To discuss the various ways of structuring an operating

system

 To explain how operating systems are installed and

customized and how they boot

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Operating System Services
 Operating systems provide an environment for execution of
programs and services to programs and users
 One set of operating-system services provides functions that are
helpful to the user:
 User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user
interface (UI).
 Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User
Interface (GUI), Batch
 Program execution - The system must be able to load a
program into memory and to run that program, end execution,
either normally or abnormally (indicating error)
 I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which
may involve a file or an I/O device
 File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular
interest. Programs need to read and write files and
directories, create and delete them, search them, list file
Information, permission management.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Operating System Services (Cont.)
 Communications – Processes may exchange
information, on the same computer or between
computers over a network
 Communications may be via shared memory or
through message passing (packets moved by the
OS)
 Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of
possible errors
 May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O
devices, in user program
 For each type of error, OS should take the
appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent
computing
 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s
and programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the
system

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Operating System Services (Cont.)
 Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the
system itself via resource sharing
 Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
 Many types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles, main memory,
and file storage) may have special allocation code, others (such as
I/O devices) may have general request and release code
 Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what
kinds of computer resources
 Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser
or networked computer system may want to control use of that
information, concurrent processes should not interfere with each other
 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled
 Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication,
extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access
attempts
 If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be
instituted throughout it. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 A View of Operating System Services

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 System Calls
 http://www.tuxradar.com/content/how-linux-kernel-works
 Programming interface to the services provided by the OS

 Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)

 Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application

Programming Interface (API) rather than direct system call
use

 Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows,

POSIX API for POSIX-based systems (including virtually all
versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java API for
the Java virtual machine (JVM)

 Why use APIs rather than system calls?

(Note that the system-call names used throughout this text

are generic)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Example of System Calls
 System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to
another file

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Example of Standard API

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 System Call Implementation
 Typically, a number associated with each system call
 System-call interface maintains a table indexed
according to these numbers

 The system call interface invokes intended system call in

OS kernel and returns status of the system call and any
return values

 The caller need know nothing about how the system call is
implemented
 Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do
as a result call
 Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by
API
 Managed by run-time support library (set of functions
built into libraries included with compiler)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 API – System Call – OS Relationship

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Examples of Windows and
Unix System Calls

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Standard C Library Example
 C program invoking printf() library call, which calls
write() system call

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Example: MS-DOS
 Single-tasking
 Shell invoked when
system booted
 Simple method to run
program
 No process created
 Single memory space
 Loads program into
memory, overwriting all
but the kernel
 Program exit -> shell
reloaded
(a) At system startup (b) running a
program

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Example: FreeBSD
 Unix variant
 Multitasking
 User login -> invoke user’s choice
of shell
 Shell executes fork() system call
to create process
 Executes exec() to load
program into process
 Shell waits for process to
terminate or continues with
user commands
 Process exits with code of 0 – no
error or > 0 – error code

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Simple Structure
 I.e. MS-DOS – written to
provide the most
functionality in the least
space
 Not divided into
modules
 Although MS-DOS has
some structure, its
interfaces and levels of
functionality are not
well separated

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 UNIX

 UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original

UNIX operating system had limited structuring. The
UNIX OS consists of two separable parts
 Systems programs
 The kernel
 Consists of everything below the system-call
interface and above the physical hardware
 Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system
functions; a large number of functions for one level

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Traditional UNIX System Structure
Beyond simple but not fully layered

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Layered Approach
 The operating system
is divided into a
number of layers
(levels), each built on
top of lower layers.
The bottom layer
(layer 0), is the
hardware; the highest
(layer N) is the user
interface.

 With modularity, layers

are selected such that
each uses functions
(operations) and
services of only lower-
level layers

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Microkernel System Structure
 Moves as much from the kernel into user space
 Mach example of microkernel
 Mac OS X kernel (Darwin) partly based on Mach

 Communication takes place between user modules using

message passing

 Benefits:
 Easier to extend a microkernel
 Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
 More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
 More secure

 Detriments:
 Performance overhead of user space to kernel space
communication

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Microkernel System Structure

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Modules
 Most modern operating systems implement loadable kernel
modules
 Uses object-oriented approach
 Each core component is separate
 Each talks to the others over known interfaces
 Each is loadable as needed within the kernel

 Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible

 Linux, Solaris, etc

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Solaris Modular Approach

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Hybrid Systems
 Most modern operating systems actually not one pure model
 Hybrid combines multiple approaches to address
performance, security, usability needs
 Linux and Solaris kernels in kernel address space, so
monolithic, plus modular for dynamic loading of
functionality
 Windows mostly monolithic, plus microkernel for different
subsystem personalities
 Apple Mac OS X hybrid, layered, Aqua UI plus Cocoa
programming environment
 Below is kernel consisting of Mach microkernel and BSD
Unix parts, plus I/O kit and dynamically loadable modules
(called kernel extensions)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Mac OS X Structure

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 iOS
 Apple mobile OS for iPhone, iPad
 Structured on Mac OS X, added
functionality
 Does not run OS X applications
natively
 Also runs on different CPU
architecture (ARM vs. Intel)
 Cocoa Touch Objective-C API for
developing apps
 Media services layer for graphics,
audio, video
 Core services provides cloud
computing, databases
 Core operating system, based on Mac
OS X kernel

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Android
 Developed by Open Handset Alliance (mostly Google)
 Open Source
 Similar stack to IOS
 Based on Linux kernel but modified
 Provides process, memory, device-driver management
 Adds power management
 Runtime environment includes core set of libraries and
Dalvik virtual machine
 Apps developed in Java plus Android API
 Java class files compiled to Java bytecode then
translated to executable than runs in Dalvik VM
 Libraries include frameworks for web browser (webkit),
database (SQLite), multimedia, smaller libc

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Android Architecture

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 End of Chapter 2

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne