ANGLE MODULATION

CHAPTER 3
 Introduction
Angle modulation is the process by
which the angle (frequency or phase) of
the carrier signal is changed in
accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of modulating or message
signal.

2
 Cont’d…
classified into two types such as
◦ Frequency modulation (FM)
◦ Phase modulation (PM)

Used for :
◦ Commercial radio broadcasting
◦ Television sound transmission
◦ Two way mobile radio
◦ Cellular radio
◦ Microwave and satellite communication system

3
 Cont’d…
Advantages over AM:
Freedom from interference: all natural and
external noise consist of amplitude variations,
thus receiver usually cannot distinguish
between amplitude of noise or desired signal.
AM is noisy than FM.
Operate in very high frequency band (VHF):
88MHz-108MHz
Can transmit musical programs with higher
degree of fidelity.
4
 Principles of FM
A sine wave carrier can be modified for
the purpose of transmitting information
from one place to another by varying its
frequency. This is known as frequency
modulation (FM).
In FM, the carrier amplitude remains
constant and the carrier frequency is
changed by the modulating signal

5
 Principles of FM
As the amplitude of the information
signal varies, the carrier frequency shifts
proportionately.
As the modulating signal amplitude
increases, the carrier frequency increases.
With no modulation the carrier is at its
normal center or resting frequency

6
 Principles of FM
Frequency deviation (fd) is the amount of
change in carrier frequency produced by the
modulating signal.
The frequency deviation rate is how many
times per second the carrier frequency deviates
above or below its center frequency.
The frequency of the modulating signal
determines the frequency deviation rate.
A type of modulation called frequency-shift
keying (FSK) is used in transmission of binary
data in digital cell phones and low-speed
computer modems.
7
 Principles of FM

Carrier

Modulating
Signal

FM
signal

8
Principles of Phase Modulation
When the amount of phase shift of a
constant-frequency carrier is varied in
accordance with a modulating signal, the
resulting output is a phase-modulation
(PM) signal.
Phase modulators produce a phase shift
which is a time separation between two sine
waves of the same frequency.
The greater the amplitude of the modulating
signal, the greater the phase shift.
9
Principles of Phase Modulation
The maximum frequency deviation
produced by a phase modulator occurs
during the time that the modulating signal
is changing at its most rapid rate.

10
 Principles of Phase Modulation
Figure : A frequency
shift occurs in PM
only when the
modulating signal
amplitude varies. (a)
Modulating signal. (b)
FM signal. (c) PM
signal.

11
Principles of Phase Modulation
Converting PM into FM
◦ In order to make PM compatible with FM, the
deviation produced by frequency variations in the
modulating signal must be compensated for.
◦ This compensation can be accomplished by passing
the intelligence signal through a low-pass RC
network.
◦ This RC low-pass filter is called a frequency-
correcting network, predistorter, or 1/f filter and
causes the higher modulating frequencies to be
attenuated.
◦ The FM produced by a phase modulator is called
indirect FM.
12
Principles of Phase Modulation
Phase-Shift Keying
◦ The process of phase modulating a carrier
with binary data is called phase-shift keying
(PSK) or binary phase-shift keying (BPSK).

◦ The PSK signal has a constant frequency, but

the phase of the signal from some reference
changes as the binary modulating signal
occurs.

13
 Principles of Phase Modulation

Figure: Phase modulation of a carrier by binary data produces PSK.

14
Mathematical analysis of FM

Mathematical analysis:
Let message signal:

 m t   Vm cos mt
And carrier signal:
 c t   Vc cos[ c t   ]

15
Mathematical analysis of FM
 During the process of frequency modulations the
frequency of carrier signal is changed in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of message signal. Therefore
the frequency of carrier after modulation is written as

i  c  K1v m t   C  K1Vm cos m t

To find the instantaneous phase angle of
modulated signal, integrate equation above w.r.t.
t

 
i   i dt   C  K1Vm cos m t dt  C t 
K1Vm
m
sin m t

16
Mathematical analysis of FM
Thus, we get the FM wave as:
K1Vm
v FM ( t )  Vc cos 1  VC cos(C t  sin m t )
m
vFM (t )  VC cos(C t  m f sin mt )

Where modulation index for FM is given

by
K1Vm
mf 
m
17
Mathematical analysis of FM

Therefore:
f  K1Vm ;
f
mf 
fm

 K1 – deviation sensitivities Hz/V

18
Example 1 (FM)

Determine the peak frequency

deviation (∆f) and modulation index
(m) for an FM modulator with a
deviation sensitivity K1 = 5 kHz/V and
a modulating signal,
v m ( t )  2 cos( 22000 t )

19
Mathematical analysis of PM
 The process by which changing the phase of carrier
signal in accordance with the instantaneous of message
signal. The amplitude remains constant after the
modulation process.
 Mathematical analysis:
Let message signal:
 m t   Vm cos mt
And carrier signal:
 c t   Vc cos[ c t   ]
20
PM (cont’d)
 Where  = phase angle of carrier signal. It is changed in
accordance with the amplitude of the message signal ;
i.e.
  KVm (t )  KVm cos mt
 After phase modulation the instantaneous voltage will be

v pm ( t )  VC cos(C t  KVm cos m t )

 or
v pm ( t )  VC cos(C t  m p cos m t )

 Where mp = Modulation index of phase modulation

 K is a constant and called deviation sensitivities of the phase

21
Example 2 (PM)

Determine the peak phase deviation (m)

for a PM modulator with a deviation
sensitivity K = 2.5 rad/V and a
modulating signal,
v m ( t )  2 cos( 22000t )

22
 Summary of Mathematical
Equation for FM and PM

Tomasi Copyright ©2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Electronic Communications Systems, 5e Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

23
 Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Any modulation process produces
sidebands.
When a constant-frequency sine wave
modulates a carrier, two side frequencies are
produced.
Side frequencies are the sum and difference
of the carrier and modulating frequency.
The bandwidth of an FM signal is usually
much wider than that of an AM signal with
the same modulating signal.
24
 Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Modulation Index
◦ The ratio of the frequency deviation to the
modulating frequency is known as the modulation
index (mf).
◦ In most communication systems using FM,
maximum limits are put on both the frequency
deviation and the modulating frequency.
◦ In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum
permitted frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the
maximum permitted modulating frequency is 15
kHz.
◦ The modulation index for standard FM
broadcasting is therefore 5.
25
 Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
◦ The equation that expresses the phase angle in
terms of the sine wave modulating signal is
solved with a complex mathematical process
known as Bessel functions.

◦ Bessel coefficients are widely available and it

is not necessary to memorize or calculate
them.

26
 FM&PM (Bessel function)
Thus, for general equation:
vFM (t )  VC cos(C t  m f cos mt )


 n 
cos(  m cos )   J n (m) cos   n  
n    2 


 n 
m( t )  VC  J n (m) cos c t  nm t  
n    2 

27
 Bessel function

 
vt FM  VC {J 0 (m f ) cos C t  J1 (m f ) cos (C  m )t  
 2
 
 J1 (m f ) cos (C  m )t    J 2 (m f ) cos(C  2m )t 
 2
 J 2 (m f ) cos(C  2m )t  ...J n (m f )...}

28
 B.F. (cont’d)
 Itis seen that each pair of side band is preceded by J
coefficients. The order of the coefficient is denoted by
subscript m. The Bessel function can be written as

 mf 
n
 1 m f / 2 2 m f / 2 4 
J n m f         ....
 2   n 1!n  1! 2!n  2 ! 
 N = number of the side frequency
 M = modulation index
f

29
 Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
◦ The symbol ! means factorial. This tells you to
multiply all integers from 1 through the number to
which the symbol is attached. (e.g. 5! Means 1 × 2 ×
3 × 4 × 5 = 120)
◦ Narrowband FM (NBFM) is any FM system in
which the modulation index is less than π/2 = 1.57,
or
mf < π /2.
◦ NBFM is widely used in communication. It
conserves spectrum space at the expense of the
signal-to-noise ratio.
30
B.F. (cont’d)

31
Bessel Functions of the First Kind, Jn(m)
for some value of modulation index

32
Representation of frequency spectrum

33
Example 3
For an FM modulator with a modulation
index m = 1, a modulating signal vm(t) =
Vm sin(2π1000t), and an unmodulated
carrier vc(t) = 10 sin(2π500kt). Determine
the number of sets of significant side
frequencies and their amplitudes. Then,
draw the frequency spectrum showing
their relative amplitudes.

34
 Comparison NBFM&WBFM
WBFM NBFM
Modulation index greater than 10 less than 1
Freq deviation 75 kHz 5 kHz
Modulation 30 Hz- 15 kHZ 3 kHz
frequency

Spectrum Infinite no of sidebands and Two sidebands and carrier

carrier

Bandwidth 15 x NBFM 2 fm
2(δ*fm (max))
Noise More suppressed Less suppressed
Application Entertainment & Mobile communication
Broadcasting

35
 FM Bandwidth
 Theoretically, the generation and transmission of FM requires
infinite bandwidth. Practically, FM system have finite bandwidth
and they perform well.
 The value of modulation index determine the number of sidebands
that have the significant relative amplitudes
 If n is the number of sideband pairs, and line of frequency
spectrum are spaced by fm, thus, the bandwidth is:

 For n≥1
B fm  2nf m

36
 FM Bandwidth (cont’d)
 Estimationof transmission b/w;
 Assume m
f is large and n is approximate m f + 2; thus
 B =2(m + 2)f
fm f m

= f
2(  2) f m
fm
B fm  2(f  f m )........(1)
(1) is called Carson’s rule

37
 Example 4
For an FM modulator with a peak frequency
deviation, Δf = 10 kHz, a modulating-signal
frequency fm = 10 kHz,
Vc = 10 V and a 500 kHz carrier, determine
◦ Actual minimum bandwidth from the Bessel function
table.
◦ Approximate minimum bandwidth using Carson’s rule.
◦ Plot the output frequency spectrum for the Bessel
approximation.

38
Deviation Ratio (DR)

 The worse case modulation index which produces the widest output
frequency spectrum.
f (max)
DR  f m (max)
 Where
◦ ∆f(max) = max. peak frequency deviation
◦ fm(max) = max. modulating signal frequency

39
 Example 5
Determine the deviation ratio and bandwidth
for the worst-case (widest-bandwidth)
modulation index for an FM broadcast-band
transmitter with a maximum frequency
deviation of 75 kHz and a maximum
modulating-signal frequency of 15 kHz.
Determine the deviation ratio and maximum
bandwidth for an equal modulation index with
only half the peak frequency deviation and
modulating-signal frequency.

40
Angle Modulation
Part 2
Power distribution of FM
Generation & Demodulation of FM
Noise in FM
FM Threshold Effect
Nonlinear Effect
Application of FM
FM Power Distribution
 Asseen in Bessel function table, it shows that as the
sideband relative amplitude increases, the carrier
amplitude,J0 decreases.
 This is because, in FM, the total transmitted power
is always constant and the total average power is
equal to the unmodulated carrier power, that is the
amplitude of the FM remains constant whether or
not it is modulated.

42
FM Power Distribution (cont’d)

 In effect, in FM, the total power that is originally in the

carrier is redistributed between all components of the
spectrum, in an amount determined by the modulation
index, mf, and the corresponding Bessel functions.
 At certain value of modulation index, the carrier
component goes to zero, where in this condition, the
power is carried by the sidebands only.

43
 Average Power
Vc2
 The average power in unmodulated carrier Pc 
2R
 The total instantaneous power in the angle modulated carrier.
m( t ) 2 Vc2
Pt   cos 2 [c t  ( t )]
R R
Vc2  1 1  Vc
2
Pt    cos[ 2c t  2( t )] 
R 2 2  2R
 The total modulated power

Vo2 2(V1 ) 2 2(V2 ) 2 2(Vn ) 2

Pt  P0  P1  P2  ..  Pn     .. 
2R 2R 2R 2R

44
 Example 6
For an FM modulator with a modulation
index m = 1, a modulating signal
vm(t) = Vmsin(2π1000t)
and an unmodulated carrier
vc(t) = 10sin(2π500kt)
Determine the unmodulated carrier power
for the FM modulator given with a load
resistance, RL = 50Ω. Determine also the
total power in the angle-modulated wave.
45
Quiz
 For an FM modulator with modulation index,
m = 2, modulating signal,
vm(t) = Vmcos(2π2000t)
and an unmodulated carrier,
vc(t) = 10 cos(2π800kt)
Assume, RL=50Ω

a) Determine the number of sets of significant sidebands.

b) Determine their amplitudes.
c) Draw the frequency spectrum showing the relative amplitudes of
the side frequencies.
d) Determine the bandwidth.
e) Determine the total power of the modulated wave.

46
Generation of FM
 Two major FM generation:
i) Direct method:
i) straight forward, requires a VCO whose oscillation
frequency has linear dependence on applied voltage.
ii) Advantage: large frequency deviation
iii) Disadvantage: the carrier frequency tends to drift and
must be stabilized.
iv) Common methods:
i) FM Reactance modulators
ii) Varactor diode modulators

47
Generation of FM (cont’d)
1) Reactance modulator

48
Generation of FM (cont’d)
2) Varactor diode modulator

49
Generation of FM (cont’d)
ii) Indirect method:
i. Frequency-up conversion.
ii. Two ways:
a. Heterodyne method
b. Multiplication method
iii. One most popular indirect method is the Armstrong
modulator

50
Wideband Armstrong Modulator

51
 Armstrong Modulator

A complete Armstrong modulator is supposed to

provide a 75kHz frequency deviation. It uses a
balanced modulator and 90o phase shifter to phase-
modulate a crystal oscillator. Required deviation is
obtained by combination of multipliers and mixing,
raise the signal from 400kHz  14.47Hz to 90.2MHz  75kHz
suitable for broadcasting.

52
Generation of FM and PM

2 k f
kp

kp
2 k f

53
FM

Detection/Demodulation
FM demodulation
◦ is a process of getting back or regenerate the
original modulating signal from the modulated
FM signal.
◦ It can be achieved by converting the frequency
deviation of FM signal to the variation of
equivalent voltage.
◦ The demodulator will produce an output where its
instantaneous amplitude is proportional to the
instantaneous frequency of the input FM signal.

54
FM detection (cont’d)
 To detect an FM signal, it is necessary to have a
circuit whose output voltage varies linearly with the
frequency of the input signal.
 The
most commonly used demodulator is the PLL
demodulator. Can be use to detect either NBFM or
WBFM.

55
PLL Demodulator

V0(t)

fi FM input Low pass

Phase Amplifier
detector filter

fvco
Vc(t)
VCO

56
PLL Demodulator
 The phase detector produces an average output voltage
that is linear function of the phase difference between
the two input signals. Then low frequency component is
pass through the LPF to get a small dc average voltage
to the amplifier.

 After amplification, part of the signal is fed back

through VCO where it results in frequency modulation
of the VCO frequency. When the loop is in lock, the
VCO frequency follows or tracks the incoming
frequency.

57
PLL Demodulator
Let instantaneous freq of FM Input,
fi(t)=fc +k1vm(t),
and the VCO output frequency,
f VCO(t)=f0 + k2Vc(t);
f0 is the free running frequency.
For the VCO frequency to track the
instantaneous incoming frequency,
fvco = fi; or ???

58
PLL Demodulator
f + k2Vc(t)= fc +k1vm(t), so,
0

Vc (t )  f c  f 0  k1vm (t )
 If VCO can be tuned so that fc=f0, then
Vc (t )  k1vm (t )
 Where Vc(t) is also taken as the output voltage, which
therefore is the demodulated output

59
Noise in FM
Noise is interference generated by
lightning, motors, automotive ignition
systems, and power line switching that
produces transient signals.
Noise is typically narrow spikes of
voltage with high frequencies.
Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and
interfere with it.
Some noise completely obliterates signal
information.
60
Noise in FM
In AM systems, noise easily distorts the
transmitted signal however, in FM
systems any added noise must create a
frequency deviation in order to be
perceptible.

61
 Noise in FM(Cont’d)
 The maximum frequency deviation due to random noise occurs
when the noise is at right angles to the resultant signal. In the
worst case the signal frequency has been deviated by:

δ = θfm
 This shows that the deviation due to noise increases as the
modulation frequency increases. Since noise power is the
square of the noise voltage, the signal to noise ratio can
significantly degrade.
 Noise occurs predominantly at the highest frequencies within
the baseband

62
Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
FM signals have a constant modulated carrier
amplitude.
FM receivers contain limiter circuits that
deliberately restrict the amplitude of the
received signal.
Any amplitude variations occurring on the
FM signal are effectively clipped by limiter
circuits.
This amplitude clipping does not affect the
information content of the FM signal, since it
is contained solely within the frequency
variations of the carrier.
63
 Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Figure 5-11: An FM signal with noise.

64
Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Preemphasis
◦ Noise can interfere with an FM signal and
particularly with the high-frequency
components of the modulating signal.
◦ Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and
contains a lot of harmonics and other high-
frequency components.
◦ To overcome high-frequency noise, a technique
known as preemphasis is used.
◦ A simple high-pass filter can serve as a
transmitter’s pre-emphasis circuit.
◦ Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of
only high-frequency components.
65
Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Preemphasis circuit.

66
Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Preemphasis
◦ A simple low-pass filter can operate as a
deemphasis circuit in a receiver.
◦ A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency
response to its normal flat level.
◦ The combined effect of preemphasis and
deemphasis is to increase the signal-to-noise
ratio for the high-frequency components
during transmission so that they will be
stronger and not masked by noise.

67
Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Deemphasis circuit.

68
 FM threshold effect
 In FM systems where the signal level is well above noise received
carrier-to-noise ratio and demodulated signal-to-noise ratio are
related by:

= signal-to-noise ratio at output of FM demodulator

= modulation index
= carrier-to-noise ratio at input of FM demodulator

 Does not apply when the carrier-to-noise ratio decreases below a

certain point. Below this critical point the signal-to-noise ratio
decreases significantly.

 Known as the FM threshold effect

69
  Below the FM threshold point the noise signal (whose amplitude
and phase are randomly varying), may instantaneously have an
amplitude greater than that of the wanted signal.

 When this happens the noise will produce a sudden change in the
phase of the FM demodulator output.

• In an audio system this

sudden phase change
makes a "click". In
video, the term "click
noise" is used to
describe short
horizontal black and
white lines that appear
randomly over a
picture.

70
Nonlinear Effect in FM
1. Strong nonlinearity; intentionally introduced in a
controlled manner. It is introduced for particular
application e.g. square law modulators, hard-limiters
and frequency multipliers.

2. Weak nonlinearity; introduced because of

imperfections in the communication channel. Such
linearities reduce the useful signal levels.

 In next slide, we will examine the effects of weak

nonlinearities on FM signal

71
Transfer characteristic of communication channel is given
by
2 3
eo (t )  a1ei (t )  a2 ei (t )  a3ei (t )
Where
ei (t )  Ec cos[ wc (t )   (t )]
eo (t )  a1 Ec cos( wc (t )   (t ))  a2 Ec cos 2 ( wc (t )   (t ))
2

 a3 Ec cos 3 ( wc (t )   (t ))
3

We know that
1  2 cos x 3 cos x  cos 3x
cos x 
2
; cos x 
3

2 4

72
 1 3
a1 Ec  ( a1 Ec  a 3 Ec ) cos( 2f c (t )   (t )) 
3
eo (t ) 
2 4
1
a2 Ec cos ( wc (t )   (t ))  a1 Ec cos( 2 2 f c (t )  2 (t ))
2 2

2
1
 a 3 Ec cos( 2 3 fc (t )  3 (t ))
3

 After filtering through bandpass filter, the fm signal

output
3
eo (t )  (a1 Ec  a 3 Ec ) cos( 2f c (t )   (t ))
3

 Effectof nonlinearities: nonlinear nature of channel

changes the amplitudes of the FM signal

73
Application of FM
 FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for
high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech (FM
broadcasting). Normal (analog) TV sound is also
broadcast using FM. The type of FM used in broadcast
is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM
 A narrowband form is used for voice communications in
commercial and amateur radio settings. In two-way
radio, narrowband narrow-fm (N-FM) is used to
conserve bandwidth. In addition, it is used to send
signals into space.

74
Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation

Major applications of AM and FM

75
Advantages
 Wideband FM gives significant improvement in the SNR at the
output of the RX which proportional to the square of
modulation index.
 Angle modulation is resistant to propagation-induced selective
fading since amplitude variations are unimportant and are
removed at the receiver using a limiting circuit.
 Angle modulation is very effective in rejecting interference.
(minimizes the effect of noise).
 Angle modulation allows the use of more efficient transmitter
power in information.
 Angle modulation is capable of handing a greater dynamic
range of modulating signal without distortion than AM .

76
Disadvantages
Angle modulation requires a transmission
bandwidth much larger than the message
signal bandwidth.
Angle modulation requires more complex
and expensive circuits than AM.

77
 Summary of angle modulation
-what you need to be familiar with

78
Summary (cont’d)

79
 Summary (cont’d)

 Bandwidth:
a) Actual minimum bandwidth from
Bessel table:B  2( n  f m )

b) Approximate minimum bandwidth

using Carson’s rule:
B  2(f  f m )

80
 Summary (cont’d)
 Multitone modulation (equation in general):

i  c  Kvm1  Kvm 2

i  c  2f1 cos 1t  2f 2 cos 2t....

 f1 f 2
i  C t  sin 1t  sin 2t......
f1 f2

81
 Summary (cont’d)

v fm t   VC cos i
f1 f 2
v fm t   VC cos[C t  sin 1t  sin 2t ]
f1 f2
 VC cos[C t  m f 1 sin 1t  m f 2 sin 2t ]...........

82
END OF ANGLE
MODULATION

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Exercise 1
Determine the deviation ratio and worst-
case bandwidth for an FM signal with a
maximum frequency deviation 25 kHz
and maximum modulating signal 12.5
kHz.

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Exercise 2
For an FM modulator with 40-kHz
frequency deviation and a modulating-
signal frequency 10 kHz, determine the
bandwidth using both Carson’s rule and
Bessel table.

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Exercise 3
For an FM modulator with an
unmodulated carrier amplitude 20 V, a
modulation index, m = 1, and a load
resistance of 10-ohm, determine the
power in the modulated carrier and each
side frequency, and sketch the power
spectrum for the modulated wave.

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Exercise 4

A frequency modulated signal (FM) has

the following expression:
v fm (t )  38 cos( 400  10 t  m f sin 10  10 t )
6 3

The frequency deviation allowed in this

system is 75 kHz. Calculate the:
◦ Modulation index
◦ Bandwidth required, using Carson’s rule

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