Classes, inheritance and type

compatibility
Classes and Data Types
• Each new class constitutes a new type of data.
• Each object constructed on the basis of such a class is like a value of
the new type.
Object Compatibility
• Any two objects may (or may not) be compatible in the sense of their
types.
Example: Cat and Dog Classes
#include <iostream> int main() {
Cat *a_cat = new Cat();
using namespace std; Dog *a_dog = new Dog();

class Cat { a_cat->make_sound();

public: a_dog->make_sound();
void make_sound() {
cout << "Meow! Meow!" << endl; // Incompatible assignments (will cause compiler errors)
// a_dog = a_cat;
}
// a_cat = a_dog;
};
class Dog {
return 0;
public:
}
void make_sound() {
• The Cat class and the Dog class have identical structures but
cout << "Woof! Woof!" << endl; represent different data types.
} • Assigning a Dog object to a Cat pointer (and vice versa) is not
}; allowed.
Type Compatibility: More
Complex Case
Introducing the Pet Class
#include <iostream> • The Pet class is a base class.
using namespace std; • It has a protected member
variable name to store the pet's
class Pet {
protected: name.
string name; • It has a public constructor to
public:
Pet(string n) { initialize the name.
name = n; • It has a public method run() that
}
void run() { prints a message with the pet's
cout << name << ": I'm running" << endl; name.
}
};
Dog - A Child of Pet
class Dog : public Pet { • The Dog class inherits from the
public: Pet class.
• It inherits the name member
Dog(string n) : Pet(n) {}
variable and the run() method
void make_sound() { from the Pet class.
cout << name << ": Woof! • It has a public constructor to
Woof!" << endl; initialize the inherited name.
} • It has a public method
}; make_sound() that prints a
barking sound with the dog's
name.
Cat - Another Child of Pet
class Cat : public Pet { • The Cat class inherits from the Pet
public: class.
• It inherits the name member
Cat(string n) : Pet(n) {}
variable and the run() method
void make_sound() { from the Pet class.
cout << name << ": Meow! • It has a public constructor to
Meow!" << endl; initialize the inherited name.
} • It has a public method
}; make_sound() that prints a
meowing sound with the cat's
name.
Inheritance and Compatibility
int main() { • An object of a subclass (e.g., Dog or
Pet a_pet("pet"); Cat) can be assigned to a variable
Cat a_cat("Tom"); of the superclass (e.g., Pet).
Dog a_dog("Spike"); • This is because the subclass object
inherits all the capabilities of the
a_pet.run(); superclass object.
a_dog.run(); • You cannot assign a superclass
a_dog.make_sound(); object to a variable of the subclass.
a_cat.run(); • The
Ouputsuperclass object may not have
a_cat.make_sound(); all theI'm
pet: capabilities
running of the subclass
Spike: I'm running
}
object.
Spike: Woof! Woof!
Tom: I'm running
Tom: Meow! Meow!
Inheritance and Pointers
#include <iostream> • The Pet class is a base class.
using namespace std; • It has a protected member
variable name to store the pet's
class Pet {
protected: name.
string name; • It has a public constructor to
public:
Pet(string n) { initialize the name.
name = n; • It has a public method run() that
}
void run() { prints a message with the pet's
cout << name << ": I'm running" << endl; name.
}
};
Dog - A Child of Pet
class Dog : public Pet { • The Dog class inherits from the
public: Pet class.
• It inherits the name member
Dog(string n) : Pet(n) {}
variable and the run() method
void make_sound() { from the Pet class.
cout << name << ": Woof! • It has a public constructor to
Woof!" << endl; initialize the inherited name.
} • It has a public method
}; make_sound() that prints a
barking sound with the dog's
name.
Cat - Another Child of Pet
class Cat : public Pet { • The Cat class inherits from the Pet
public: class.
• It inherits the name member
Cat(string n) : Pet(n) {}
variable and the run() method
void make_sound() { from the Pet class.
cout << name << ": Meow! • It has a public constructor to
Meow!" << endl; initialize the inherited name.
} • It has a public method
}; make_sound() that prints a
meowing sound with the cat's
name.
Pointers to Superclass Objects
int main() • We can declare pointers of the
{ superclass type (Pet*) and assign them
Pet *a_pet1 = new Cat("Tom"); objects of the subclass types (Cat and
Dog).
Pet *a_pet2 = new Dog("Spike");
• This is because the subclass objects
inherit all the functionalities of the
a_pet1 -> run(); superclass object.
// 'a_pet1 -> make_sound();' is not allowed • However, we cannot call subclass-
here!
specific methods (like make_sound())
a_pet2 -> run(); on these pointers because the
// 'a_pet2 -> make_sound();' is not allowed compiler cannot guarantee that the
here! object pointed to actually has that
} method.
Type Compatibility - Recovering
Lost Functionality
In the previous section, we saw that we cannot call subclass-specific methods on
pointers of the superclass type due to compiler restrictions. This section explores
how to recover this functionality using the static_cast operator.
The Problem with Superclass Pointers
• The compiler restricts calling subclass methods on superclass
pointers.
• This is because the compiler cannot guarantee the object pointed to
has the specific method.
• We know for sure that Dog and Cat objects have make_sound()
methods, but the compiler doesn't.
The Solution: static_cast Operator
• We can use the static_cast operator to inform the compiler about our
intentions.
• static_cast is used for static type conversion during compilation.
• It allows us to cast a pointer from one type to another.
Using static_cast
#include <iostream> class Cat : public Pet {
using namespace std; public:
class Pet { Cat(string n) : Pet(n) {};
protected: void make_sound()
string name; {
public: cout << name << ": Meow! Meow!" << endl;
Pet(string n) }
{ };
name = n; int main()
} {
void run() Pet *a_pet1 = new Cat("Tom");
{ Pet *a_pet2 = new Dog("Spike");
cout << name << ": I'm running" << endl; a_pet1 -> run();
} static_cast<Cat *>(a_pet1) -> make_sound();
}; a_pet2 -> run();
class Dog : public Pet { static_cast<Dog *>(a_pet2) -> make_sound();
public: }
Dog(string n) : Pet(n) {}; • We use static_cast<target_type>(expression) to
void make_sound() convert the expression to the target type.
{
• In this example, we cast a_pet1 to Cat* and a_pet2
cout << name << ": Woof! Woof!" << endl;
to Dog*.
}
}; • This allows us to call make_sound() on these
• static_cast allows us to recover lost functionality due to superclass
pointer limitations.
• It should be used cautiously as it bypasses compiler checks and can
lead to errors if not used correctly.
• we'll discuss the dangers of misusing static_cast operator and explore
a safer alternative - dynamic_cast. We'll see how static_cast can lead
to unexpected behavior and potential program crashes.
The Problem with Static_Cast
• Static_cast performs a type conversion at compile time
• Compiler trusts the programmer to ensure compatibility
• No runtime check for object type
Code Example: Casting Wrong Types
#include <iostream> int main()
using namespace std;
{
class Pet {
protected: Pet *a_pet1 = new Cat("Tom");
string name;
Pet *a_pet2 = new Dog("Spike");
public:
Pet(string n) { name = n; }
void run()
a_pet2 -> run();
{
cout << name << ": I'm running" << endl; static_cast<Cat *>(a_pet2) -> make_sound();
} a_pet1 -> run();
};
class Dog : public Pet { static_cast<Dog *>(a_pet1) -> make_sound();
public: }
Dog(string n) : Pet(n) {};
void make_sound() • We create Pet objects using pointers
{
• Attempt to call Cat's make_sound on Dog pointer (static_cast)
cout << name << ": Woof! Woof!" << endl;
} • Attempt to call Dog's make_sound on Cat pointer (static_cast)
};
class Cat : public Pet {
public:
Cat(string n) : Pet(n) {};
void make_sound()
{
cout << name << ": Meow! Meow!" << endl;
}
};
Unexpected Output
Spike: I'm running
Spike: Meow! Meow!
Tom: I'm running
Tom: Woof! Woof!
• Program successfully compiles but produces incorrect output
• Cat object makes dog sound (Meow!) and vice versa
Why This Happens
• Compiler trusts the programmer with static_cast
• No check for object type compatibility at runtime
A Safer Alternative: Dynamic_Cast
• Dynamic_cast performs type conversion at runtime
• Checks if the object pointed to is actually of the target type
• Returns nullptr if conversion fails (prevents program crash)
Type Compatibility: Upcasting and
Inheritance
• Upcasting refers to using a pointer of a base class to point to a derived
class object. We'll see how this works even with long inheritance
chains.
Upcasting Rule
• Objects at higher levels (base classes) are compatible with objects at
lower levels (derived classes)
• This applies even with complex inheritance hierarchies
Code Example: Upcasting in Action
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Pet {
protected: int main()
string name;
public:
{
Pet(string n) Pet *a_pet;
{
name = n;
Persian *a_persian;
} a_pet = a_persian = new Persian("Mr.
void run() Bigglesworth");
{
cout << name << ": I'm running" << endl;
a_persian -> make_sound();
} static_cast<Persian *>(a_pet) -> make_sound();
};
class Cat : public Pet {
}
public: • We define three classes: Pet, Cat, and Persian
Cat(string n) : Pet(n) {};
void make_sound()
(Inherits from Cat)
{ • Create a Persian object and assign it to both a
cout << name << ": Meow! Meow!" << endl; Persian pointer and a Pet pointer (upcasting)
}
}; • Call make_sound on both pointers
class Persian : public Cat {
public:
Persian(string n) : Cat(n) {};
Program Output
Mr. Bigglesworth: Meow! Meow!
Mr. Bigglesworth: Meow! Meow!
• Upcasting works seamlessly
• Both calls to make_sound produce the same output
Conclusion
• Upcasting is a powerful mechanism in inheritance
• Allows for flexible code design
• Ensures compatibility across inheritance hierarchies