CS6105-DIGITAL FUNDAMENTALS AND COMPUTER

ORGANIZATION

Digital Logic Design - Chapter 2

Module 2: Boolean Algebra and

Logic Gates
Angelin Gladston, DCSE
 2.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS
• A set is collection of elements having the same property.
•S: set, x and y: element or event
•For example: S = {1, 2, 3, 4}
•If x = 2, then xS.
•If y = 5, then y S.
• A binary operator defined on a set S of elements is a rule that assigns, to each pair of elements from
S, a unique element from S.
•For example: given a set S, consider a*b = c and * is a binary operator.
•If (a, b) through * get c and a, b, cS, then * is a binary operator of S.
•On the other hand, if * is not a binary operator of S and a, bS, then c  S.

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 2.1 Algebras
• What is an algebra?
•Mathematical system consisting of
•Set of elements (example: N = {1,2,3,4,…})
•Set of operators (+, -, ×, ÷)
•Axioms or postulates (associativity, distributivity, closure, identity elements, etc.)
• Why is it important?
•Defines rules of “calculations”
• Note: operators with two inputs are called binary
•Operator(s) with one input are called unary

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 BASIC DEFINITIONS
• The common postulates used to formulate algebraic structures are:
1. Closure: a set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for every pair of elements of S, the binary operator
specifies a rule for obtaining a unique element of S.
•For example, natural numbers N={1,2,3,...} is closed w.r.t. the binary operator + by the rule of arithmetic addition,
since, for any a, bN, there is a unique cN such that
•a+b = c
•But operator – is not closed for N, because 2-3 = -1 and 2, 3N, but (-1)N.
2. Associative law: a binary operator * on a set S is said to be associative whenever
•(x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, zS
•(x+y)+z = x+(y+z)

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 BASIC DEFINITIONS
• The common postulates used to formulate algebraic structures are:
3. Commutative law: a binary operator * on a set S is said to be commutative whenever
•x * y = y * x for all x, yS
•x+y = y+x
4. Identity element: a set S is said to have an identity element with respect to a binary operation *
on S if there exists an element eS with the property that
•e * x = x * e = x for every xS
•0+x = x+0 =x for every xI I = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
•1×x = x×1 =x for every xI I = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.

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 BASIC DEFINITIONS
5. Inverse: a set having the identity element e with respect to the binary operator to have an
inverse whenever, for every xS, there exists an element yS such that
•x * y = e
•The operator + over I, with e = 0, the inverse of an element a is (-a), since a+(-a) = 0.
6. Distributive law: if (*) and (.) are two binary operators on a set S, (*) is said to be distributive
over (.) whenever
•x * (y.z) = (x * y).(x * z)

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 George Boole
• Father of Boolean algebra
• He came up with a type of linguistic algebra, the three most basic operations of
which were (and still are) AND, OR and NOT.
• Boole’s system was based on a binary approach, processing only two objects -
the yes-no, true-false, on-off, zero-one approach.
• Surprisingly, given his standing in the academic community, Boole's idea was
either criticized or completely ignored by the majority of his peers. George Boole (1815 - 1864)
• Eventually, one bright student, claude shunnon(1916-2001), picked up the idea
and ran with it

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 2.3 Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra
• We need to define algebra for binary values - Developed by Boole in 1854
• Huntington postulates (1904) for Boolean algebra :
• B = {0, 1} and two binary operations, (+) and (.)
•Closure with respect to operator (+) and operator (.)
•Identity element 0 for operator (+) and 1 for operator (.)
•Commutativity with respect to (+) and (.)
x+y = y+x, x·y = y·x

•Distributivity of (.) over (+), and (+) over (.)

x·(y+z) = (x·y)+(x·z) and x+(y·z) = (x+y)·(x+z)
•Complement for every element x is x’ with x+x’=1, x·x’=0

•There are at least two elements x,yB such that xy

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 Boolean Algebra

• Terminology:
•Literal: A variable or its complement
•Product term: literals connected by (·)
•Sum term: literals connected by (+)

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 Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra
• B = {0, 1} and two binary operations, (+) and (.)
• The rules of operations: AND 、 OR and NOT.
AND OR NOT
x y x.y x y x+y x x’
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

1. Closure (+ and‧)
2. The identity elements
(1) + = 0
(2) · = 1
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 Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra
3. The commutative laws x+y = y+x, x.y = y.x

4. The distributive laws

x． x． x． (x ． y)+
x y z y+z
(y+z) y z (x ． z)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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 Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra
5. Complement
•x+x'=1 → 0+0'=0+1=1; 1+1'=1+0=1
•x ． x'=0 → 0 ． 0'=0 ． 1=0; 1 ． 1'=1 ． 0=0
6. Has two distinct elements 1 and 0, with 0 ≠ 1

• Note
•A set of two elements
•(+) : OR operation; (·) : AND operation
•A complement operator: NOT operation
•Binary logic is a two-valued Boolean algebra
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 2.4 Basic Theorems And Properties Of Boolean Algebra
Duality
• The principle of duality is an important concept. This says that if an expression is valid in Boolean
algebra, the dual of that expression is also valid.
• To form the dual of an expression, replace all (+) operators with (·) operators, all (·) operators with (+)
operators, all ones with zeros, and all zeros with ones.
• Following the replacement rules…
a(b + c) = ab + ac
• Form the dual of the expression
a + (bc) = (a + b)(a + c)
• Take care not to alter the location of the parentheses if they are present.

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Basic Theorems

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 Boolean Theorems
• Huntington’s postulates define some rules

• Need more rules to modify

algebraic expressions
•Theorems that are derived from postulates
• What is a theorem?
•A formula or statement that is derived from postulates (or other proven theorems)
• Basic theorems of Boolean algebra
•Theorem 1 (a): x + x = x (b): x · x = x
•Looks straightforward, but needs to be proven !
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 Absorption Property (Covering)
• Theorem 6(a): x + xy = x
• x + xy = x ． 1 + xy by 2(b)
= x (1 + y) 4(a)
= x (y + 1) 3(a)
=x．1 Th 2(a)
=x 2(b)

• Theorem 6(b): x (x + y) = x by duality

• By means of truth table x y xy x+xy
(another way to proof ) 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

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 DeMorgan’s Theorem
• Theorem 5(a): (x + y)’ = x’y’
• Theorem 5(b): (xy)’ = x’ + y’
• By means of truth table
x y x’ y’ x+y (x+y) x’y’ xy x’+y' (xy)’
’
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

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 Consensus Theorem
1. xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z
2. (x+y)•(x’+z)•(y+z) = (x+y)•(x’+z) -- (dual)
• Proof:
• xy + x’z + yz
• = xy + x’z + 1.yz 2(a)

• = xy + x’z + (x+x’)yz 5(a)

• = xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz 3(b) &4(a)

• = (xy + xyz) + (x’z + x’zy) Th4(a)

• = x(y + yz) + x’ (z + zy) 4(a)

• = xy + x’z Th6(a)

• QED (2 true by duality).

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 Operator Precedence

• The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean Expression is

•Parentheses
•NOT
•AND
•OR
• Examples
•x y' + z
•(x y + z)'

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 2.5 Boolean Functions
• A Boolean function
•Binary variables
•Binary operators OR and AND
•Unary operator NOT
•Parentheses
• Examples
•F1= x y z'
•F2 = x + y'z
•F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'
•F4 = x y' + x' z
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 Boolean Functions
 The truth table of 2n entries (n=number of variables)

x y z F1 F2 F3 F4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0

• Two Boolean expressions may specify the same function

• F3 = F4
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 Boolean Functions
• Implementation with logic gates
• F4 is more economical
F2 = x + y'z

F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'

F4 = x y' + x'
z

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 Algebraic Manipulation
• When a Boolean expression is implemented with logic gates, each term requires a gate and each
variable (Literal) within the term designates an input to the gate. (F3 has 3 terms and 8 literal)
• To minimize Boolean expressions, minimize the number of literals and the number of terms → a
circuit with less equipment
•It is a hard problem (no specific rules to follow)
• Example 2.1
1.x(x'+y) = xx' + xy = 0+xy = xy
2.x+x'y = (x+x')(x+y) = 1 (x+y) = x+y
3.(x+y)(x+y') = x+xy+xy'+yy' = x(1+y+y') = x
4.xy + x'z + yz = xy + x'z + yz(x+x') = xy + x'z + yzx + yzx' = xy(1+z) + x'z(1+y) = xy +x'z
5.(x+y)(x'+z)(y+z) = (x+y)(x'+z), by duality from function 4. (consensus theorem with duality)

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 Complement of a Function
• An interchange of 0's for 1's and 1's for 0's in the value of F
•By DeMorgan's theorem
•(A+B+C)' = (A+X)' let B+C = X
= A'X' by theorem 5(a) (DeMorgan's)
= A'(B+C)' substitute B+C = X
= A'(B'C') by theorem 5(a) (DeMorgan's)
= A'B'C' by theorem 4(b) (associative)
• Generalization: a function is obtained by interchanging AND and OR operators and
complementing each literal.
•(A+B+C+D+ ... +F)' = A'B'C'D'... F'
•(ABCD ... F)' = A'+ B'+C'+D' ... +F'

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 Examples
• Example 2.2
•F1' = (x'yz' + x'y'z)' = (x'yz')' (x'y'z)' = (x+y'+z) (x+y+z')
•F2' = [x(y'z'+yz)]' = x' + (y'z'+yz)' = x' + (y'z')' (yz)‘
= x' + (y+z) (y'+z')
= x' + yz‘+y'z
• Example 2.3: a simpler procedure
•Take the dual of the function and complement each literal
1.F1 = x'yz' + x'y'z.
The dual of F1 is (x'+y+z') (x'+y'+z).
Complement each literal: (x+y'+z)(x+y+z') = F1'
2.F2 = x(y' z' + yz).
The dual of F2 is x+(y'+z') (y+z).
Complement each literal: x'+(y+z)(y' +z') = F2'

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CS6105-DIGITAL FUNDAMENTALS AND COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION

Module 3: Canonical and

Standard Forms
Angelin Gladston, DCSE
 2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms
Minterms and Maxterms
• A minterm (standard product): an AND term consists of all literals in their normal form
or in their complement form.
•For example, two binary variables x and y,
•xy, xy', x'y, x'y'
•It is also called a standard product.
•n variables can be combined to form 2n minterms.
• A maxterm (standard sums): an OR term
•It is also call a standard sum.
•2n maxterms.

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 Minterms and Maxterms
 Each maxterm is the complement of its corresponding minterm, and vice versa.

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 Minterms and Maxterms
• An Boolean function can be expressed by
•A truth table
•Sum of minterms for each combination of variables that produces a 1 in the function.
•f1 = x'y'z + xy'z' + xyz = m1 + m4 +m7 (Minterms)
•f2 = x'yz+ xy'z + xyz'+xyz = m3 + m5 +m6 + m7 (Minterms)

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 Minterms and Maxterms
• The complement of a Boolean function
•The minterms that produce a 0
•f1' = m0 + m2 +m3 + m5 + m6 = x'y'z'+x'yz'+x'yz+xy'z+xyz'
•f1 = (f1')'
•= (x+y+z)(x+y'+z) (x+y'+z') (x'+y+z')(x'+y'+z) = M0 M2 M3 M5 M6
•f2 = (x+y+z)(x+y+z')(x+y'+z)(x'+y+z)=M0M1M2M4
•Any Boolean function can be expressed as terms).
•A product of maxterms (“product” meaning the ANDing of terms).
•A sum of minterms (“sum” meaning the ORing of Both boolean functions are said to be in Canonical
form.

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 Sum of Minterms
• Sum of minterms: there are 2n minterms and 22n combinations of functions with n Boolean
variables.
• Example 2.4: express F = A+B’C as a sum of minterms.
•F = A+B'C = A (B+B') + B'C = AB +AB' + B'C = AB(C+C') + AB'(C+C') + (A+A')B'C =
ABC+ABC'+AB'C+AB'C'+A'B'C
•F = A'B'C +AB'C' +AB'C+ABC'+ ABC = m1 + m4 +m5 + m6 + m7
•F(A, B, C) = (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
•or, built the truth table first

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 Product of Maxterms
• Product of maxterms: using distributive law to expand.
•x + yz = (x + y)(x + z) = (x+y+zz')(x+z+yy') = (x+y+z)(x+y+z')(x+y'+z)
• Example 2.5: express F = xy + x'z as a product of maxterms.
•F = xy + x'z = (xy + x')(xy +z) = (x+x')(y+x')(x+z)(y+z) = (x'+y)(x+z)(y+z)
•x'+y = x' + y + zz' = (x'+y+z)(x'+y+z')
•F = (x+y+z)(x+y'+z)(x'+y+z)(x'+y+z') = M0M2M4M5
•F(x, y, z) = (0, 2, 4, 5)

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 Conversion between Canonical Forms
• The complement of a function expressed as the sum of minterms equals the sum of minterms missing
from the original function.
•F(A, B, C) = (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
•Thus, F‘ (A, B, C) = (0, 2, 3)
•By DeMorgan's theorem
F(A, B, C) = (0, 2, 3)
F'(A, B, C) =(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
•mj' = Mj
• To convert from one canonical form to another: interchange the symbols  and and list those
numbers missing from the original form
• of 1's
• of 0's

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• Example
• F = xy + xz
• F(x, y, z) = (1, 3, 6, 7)
• F(x, y, z) =  (0, 2, 4, 5)

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 Standard Forms
• In canonical forms each minterm or maxterm must contain all the variables either complemented or
uncomplemented, thus these forms are very seldom the ones with the least number of literals.
• Standard forms: the terms that form the function may obtain one, two, or any number of
literals, .There are two types of standard forms:
•Sum of products: F1 = y' + xy+ x'yz'
•Product of sums: F2 = x(y'+z)(x'+y+z')
• A Boolean function may be expressed in a nonstandard form
•F3 = AB + C(D + E)
• But it can be changed to a standard form by using The distributive law
. .

•F3 = AB + C(D + E) = AB + CD + CE

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 Implementation
• Two-level implementation

F1 = y' + xy+ x'yz' F2 = x(y'+z)(x'+y+z')

• Multi-level implementation

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 2.7 Other Logic Operations
• 2n rows in the truth table of n binary variables.
• 22n functions for n binary variables.
• 16 functions of two binary variables.

• All the new symbols except for the exclusive-OR symbol are not in common use by
digital designers.
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Boolean Expressions

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 2.8 Digital Logic Gates
• Boolean expression: AND, OR and NOT operations
• Constructing gates of other logic operations
•The feasibility and economy;
•The possibility of extending gate's inputs;
•The basic properties of the binary operations (commutative and associative);
•The ability of the gate to implement Boolean functions.

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 Standard Gates
• Consider the 16 functions in Table 2.8
•Two functions produce a constant : (F0 and F15).
•Four functions with unary operations: complement and transfer: (F3, F5, F10 and F12).
•The other ten functions with binary operators
• Eight function are used as standard gates : complement (F12), transfer (F3),
AND (F1), OR (F7), NAND (F14), NOR (F8), XOR (F6), and equivalence
(XNOR) (F9).
•Complement: inverter.
•Transfer: buffer (increasing drive strength).
•Equivalence: XNOR.

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Summary of Logic Gates

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Summary of Logic Gates

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 Multiple Inputs
• Extension to multiple inputs
•A gate can be extended to multiple inputs.
•If its binary operation is commutative and associative.
•AND and OR are commutative and associative.
•OR
•x+y = y+x
•(x+y)+z = x+(y+z) = x+y+z
•AND
•xy = yx
•(x y)z = x(y z) = x y z

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 Multiple Inputs
• Multiple NOR = a complement of OR gate, Multiple NAND = a complement of AND.
• The cascaded NAND operations = sum of products.
• The cascaded NOR operations = product of sums.

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 Multiple Inputs
• The XOR and XNOR gates are commutative and associative.
• Multiple-input XOR gates are uncommon?
• XOR is an odd function: it is equal to 1 if the inputs variables have an odd number of 1's.

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 Positive and Negative Logic

• Positive and Negative Logic

•Two signal values <=> two logic values
•Positive logic: H=1; L=0
•Negative logic: H=0; L=1
• Consider a TTL gates
•A positive logic AND gate
•A negative logic OR gate

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Positive and Negative Logic

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 2.9 Integrated Circuits
Level of Integration
• An IC (a chip)
• Examples:
•Small-scale Integration (SSI): < 10 gates
•Medium-scale Integration (MSI): 10 ~ 100 gates
•Large-scale Integration (LSI): 100 ~ xk gates
•Very Large-scale Integration (VLSI): > xk gates
• VLSI
•Small size (compact size)
•Low cost
•Low power consumption
•High reliability
•High speed
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 Digital Logic Families
• Digital logic families: circuit technology
•TTL: transistor-transistor logic (dying?)
•ECL: emitter-coupled logic (high speed, high power consumption)
•MOS: metal-oxide semiconductor (NMOS, high density)
•CMOS: complementary MOS (low power)
•BiCMOS: high speed, high density

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 Digital Logic Families
• The characteristics of digital logic families
•Fan-out: the number of standard loads that the output of a typical gate can drive.
•Power dissipation.
•Propagation delay: the average transition delay time for the signal to propagate from input
to output.
•Noise margin: the minimum of external noise voltage that caused an undesirable change
in the circuit output.

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 CAD
• CAD – Computer-Aided Design
•Software programs that support computer-based representation of circuits of
millions of gates.
•Automate the design process
•Two design entry:
•Schematic capture
•HDL – Hardware Description Language
•Verilog, VHDL
•Simulation
•Physical realization
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