CS5302 Data Structures and Algorithms

Lecturer: Lusheng Wang Office: Y6416 Phone: 2788 9820 E-mail lwang@cs.cityu.edu.hk Welcome to ask questions at ANY time. Java Source code: http://net3.datastructures.net/download.html The course Website: http://www.cs.cityu.edu.hk/~lwang/cs5302.html Text Book: Michael T. Goodrich and Roberto Tamassia, Data Structurea and Algorithms in Java, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Analysis of Algorithms

What We Cover
Analysis of Algorithms: worst case time and space complexity Data Structures: stack, queue, linked list, tree, priority queue, heap, and hash; Searching algorithms: binary and AVL search trees; Sorting algorithms: merge sort, quick sort, bucket sort and radix sort; (Reduce some contents) Graph: data structure, depth first search and breadth first search. (add some interesting contents).

Analysis of Algorithms

Why This Course?

You will be able to evaluate the quality of a program (Analysis of Algorithms: Running time and memory space ) You will be able to write fast programs You will be able to solve new problems You will be able to give non-trivial methods to solve problems. (Your algorithm (program) will be faster than others.)
Analysis of Algorithms 3

Course Evaluations
Course work: 40% Final Exam: 60% Course Work: Three assignments

Analysis of Algorithms

Data Structures: A systematic way of organizing and accessing data. --No single data structure works well for ALL purposes.

Input

Algorithm

Output

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem in a finite amount of time.

Algorithm Descriptions
Nature languages: Chinese, English, etc. Pseudo-code: codes very close to computer languages, e.g., C programming language. Programs: C programs, C++ programs, Java programs. Goal: Allow a well-trained programmer to be able to implement. Allow an expert to be able to analyze the running time.

Analysis of Algorithms

An Example of an Algorithm
Algorithm sorting(X, n) Input array X of n integers Output array X sorted in a non-decreasing order for i n 0 to n  1 do for j n i+1 to n do if (X[i]>X[j]) then { s=X[i]; X[i]=X[j]; X[j]=s; } return X
Analysis of Algorithms 7

Analysis of Algorithms
Estimate the running time Estimate the memory space required. Depends on the input size.

Analysis of Algorithms

Running Time (3.1)

Most algorithms transform input objects into output objects. The running time of an algorithm typically grows with the input size. Average case time is often difficult to determine. We focus on the worst case running time.
 

best case average case worst case

120 100

Running Time

80 60 40 20 0 1000 2000 3000 4000

Easier to analyze Crucial to applications such as games, finance and robotics

Analysis of Algorithms

Input Size

Experimental Studies
Write a program implementing the algorithm Run the program with inputs of varying size and composition Use a method like System.currentTimeMillis() to get an accurate measure of the actual running time Plot the results
9000 8000 7000

Time (ms)

6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 50 100

Input Size
Analysis of Algorithms 10

Limitations of Experiments
It is necessary to implement the algorithm, which may be difficult Results may not be indicative of the running time on other inputs not included in the experiment. In order to compare two algorithms, the same hardware and software environments must be used
Analysis of Algorithms 11

Theoretical Analysis
Uses a high-level description of the algorithm instead of an implementation Characterizes running time as a function of the input size, n. Takes into account all possible inputs Allows us to evaluate the speed of an algorithm independent of the hardware/software environment
Analysis of Algorithms 12

Pseudocode (3.2)
Example: find max High-level description element of an array of an algorithm More structured than Algorithm arrayMax(A, n) English prose Input array A of n integers Less detailed than a Output maximum element of A program currentMax n A[0] Preferred notation for for i n 1 to n  1 do describing algorithms if A[i] " currentMax then Hides program design currentMax n A[i] issues return currentMax

Analysis of Algorithms

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Pseudocode Details
Control flow
    

Expressions
n Assignment (like ! in Java) ! Equality testing (like !! in Java) n2 Superscripts and other mathematical formatting allowed

if then [else ] while do repeat until for do Indentation replaces braces

Method declaration
Algorithm method (arg [, arg]) Input Output

Analysis of Algorithms

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Primitive Operations
Basic computations performed by an algorithm Identifiable in pseudocode Largely independent from the programming language Exact definition not important (we will see why later) Assumed to take a constant amount of time in the RAM model
Analysis of Algorithms

Examples:


 

Evaluating an expression Assigning a value to a variable Indexing into an array Calling a method Returning from a method

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Counting Primitive Operations (3.4)

By inspecting the pseudocode, we can determine the maximum number of primitive operations executed by an algorithm, as a function of the input size Algorithm arrayMax(A, n) currentMax n A[0] for (i =1; i<n; i++) if A[i] " currentMax then currentMax n A[i] return currentMax Total
Analysis of Algorithms

# operations 2 2n 2(n  1) 2(n  1) 1 6n 

16

(i=1 once, i<n n times, i++ (n-1) times)

Estimating Running Time

Algorithm arrayMax executes 6n  1 primitive operations in the worst case. Define:
a = Time taken by the fastest primitive operation b = Time taken by the slowest primitive operation

Let T(n) be worst-case time of arrayMax. Then a (8n  2) e T(n) e b(8n  2) Hence, the running time T(n) is bounded by two linear functions
Analysis of Algorithms 17

Growth Rate of Running Time

Changing the hardware/ software environment
 

Affects T(n) by a constant factor, but Does not alter the growth rate of T(n)

The linear growth rate of the running time T(n) is an intrinsic property of algorithm arrayMax
Analysis of Algorithms 18

n
4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024

logn
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

n
4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1,024

nlogn
8 24 64 160 384 896 2,048 4,608 10,240

n2
16 64 256 1,024 4,094 16,384 65,536 262,144 1,048,576

n3
64 512 4,096 32,768 262,144 2,097,152 16,777,216 134,217,728 1,073,741,824

2n
16 256 65,536 4,294,967,296 1.84 * 1019 3.40 * 1038 1.15 * 1077 1.34 * 10154 1.79 * 10308

The Growth Rate of the Six Popular functions

Analysis of Algorithms

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Big-Oh Notation
To simplify the running time estimation, for a function f(n), we ignore the constants and lower order terms. Example: 10n3+4n2-4n+5 is O(n3).

Analysis of Algorithms

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Big-Oh Notation (Formal Definition)

10,000

Given functions f(n) and g(n), we say that f(n) is 1,000 O(g(n)) if there are positive constants 100 c and n0 such that f(n) e cg(n) for n u n0 Example: 2n  10 is O(n)
   

3n 2n+10 n

10

2n  10 e cn (c  2) n u 10 n u 10(c  2) Pick c !3 and n0 !10

1 1 10 100 1,000

Analysis of Algorithms

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Big-Oh Example
1,000,000

Example: the function n2 is not O(n)

  

n^2

100,000 10,000 1,000 100 10 1 1

100n 10n n

n2

e cn nec The above inequality cannot be satisfied since c must be a constant n2 is O(n2).

10

100

1,000

Analysis of Algorithms

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More Big-Oh Examples

7n-2
7n-2 is O(n) need c > 0 and n0 u 1 such that 7n-2 e c n for n u n0 this is true for c = 7 and n0 = 1

 3n3 + 20n2 + 5 3n3 + 20n2 + 5 is O(n3) need c > 0 and n0 u 1 such that 3n3 + 20n2 + 5 e c n3 for n u n0 this is true for c = 4 and n0 = 21 

3 log n + 5
3 log n + 5 is O(log n) need c > 0 and n0 u 1 such that 3 log n + 5 e c log n for n u n0 this is true for c = 8 and n0 = 2
Analysis of Algorithms 23

Big-Oh and Growth Rate

The big-Oh notation gives an upper bound on the growth rate of a function The statement f(n) is O(g(n)) means that the growth rate of f(n) is no more than the growth rate of g(n) We can use the big-Oh notation to rank functions according to their growth rate

Analysis of Algorithms

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Big-Oh Rules
If f(n) is a polynomial of degree d, then f(n) is O(nd), i.e.,
1. 2.

Drop lower-order terms Drop constant factors Say 2n is O(n) instead of 2n is O(n2) Say 3n  5 is O(n) instead of 3n  5 is O(3n)
Analysis of Algorithms 25

Use the smallest possible class of functions



Use the simplest expression of the class



Growth Rate of Running Time

Consider a program with time complexity O(n2). For the input of size n, it takes 5 seconds. If the input size is doubled (2n), then it takes 20 seconds. Consider a program with time complexity O(n). For the input of size n, it takes 5 seconds. If the input size is doubled (2n), then it takes 10 seconds. Consider a program with time complexity O(n3). For the input of size n, it takes 5 seconds. If the input size is doubled (2n), then it takes 40 seconds.

Analysis of Algorithms

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Asymptotic Algorithm Analysis

The asymptotic analysis of an algorithm determines the running time in big-Oh notation To perform the asymptotic analysis


We find the worst-case number of primitive operations executed as a function of the input size We express this function with big-Oh notation We determine that algorithm arrayMax executes at most 6n  1 primitive operations We say that algorithm arrayMax runs in O(n) time

Example:


Since constant factors and lower-order terms are eventually dropped anyhow, we can disregard them when counting primitive operations
Analysis of Algorithms 27

Computing Prefix Averages

We further illustrate asymptotic analysis with two algorithms for prefix averages The i-th prefix average of an array X is average of the first (i  1) elements of X: A[i] !X[0]  X[1]   X[i])/(i+1) Computing the array A of prefix averages of another array X has applications to financial analysis
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

X A

Analysis of Algorithms

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Prefix Averages (Quadratic)

The following algorithm computes prefix averages in quadratic time by applying the definition Algorithm prefixAverages1(X, n) Input array X of n integers Output array A of prefix averages of X #operations A n new array of n integers n for i n 0 to n  1 do n { s n X[0] n for j n 1 to i do 1 2  (n  1) s n s  X[j] 1 2  (n  1) A[i] n s  (i  1) } n return A 1
Analysis of Algorithms 29

Arithmetic Progression
The running time of prefixAverages1 is O(1 2 n) The sum of the first n integers is n(n 1) 2


There is a simple visual proof of this fact

Thus, algorithm prefixAverages1 runs in O(n2) time

Analysis of Algorithms

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Prefix Averages (Linear)

The following algorithm computes prefix averages in linear time by keeping a running sum Algorithm prefixAverages2(X, n) Input array X of n integers Output array A of prefix averages of X A n new array of n integers sn0 for i n 0 to n  1 do {s n s  X[i] A[i] n s  (i  1) } return A Algorithm prefixAverages2 runs in O(n) time
Analysis of Algorithms 31

#operations

n 1 n n n 1

Exercise: Give a big-Oh characterization

Algorithm Ex1(A, n) Input an array X of n integers Output the sum of the elements in A s n A[0] for i n 0 to n  1 do s n s  A[i] return s
Analysis of Algorithms 32

Exercise: Give a big-Oh characterization

Algorithm Ex2(A, n) Input an array X of n integers Output the sum of the elements at even cells in A s n A[0] for i n 2 to n  1 by increments of 2 do s n s  A[i] return s

Analysis of Algorithms

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Exercise: Give a big-Oh characterization

Algorithm Ex1(A, n) Input an array X of n integers Output the sum of the prefix sums A sn0 for i n 0 to n  1 do s n s  A[0] for jn 1 to i do s n s  A[j] return s
Analysis of Algorithms 34

Remarks:

In the first tutorial, ask the students to try programs with running time O(n), O(n log n), O(n2), O(n2log n), O(2n) with various inputs. They will get intuitive ideas about those functions. for (i=1; i<=n; i++) for (j=1; j<=n; j++) { x=x+1; delay(1 second); }

Analysis of Algorithms

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