Week 2

OSI Model Concepts

Connectors and Wiring
Packet Tracer

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The OSI Model Packet Flow

7 Application 1 Physical
Sender Receiver
6 Presentation 2 Data Link

5 Session 3 Network

4 Transport 4 Transport

3 Network 5 Session

2 Data Link 6 Presentation

1 Physical 7 Application

2
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The OSI Model Mnemonic

Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away

P D N T S P A

Physical Data Link Network Transport Session Presentation Application

Responsibility of the Network
7 Application

6 Presentation

5 Session

4 Transport
Responsibility
of the 3 Network
Network
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2 Data Link
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Layer 1 – Physical

7 Application Functions and Examples

• Transmit bits from sending source over network
6 Presentation communications to physical layer of receiving device
• Data transmitted using cables or wireless media
5 Session • Examples: Coax and fiber cables, hubs and repeaters,
modem, transceiver
4 Transport

3 Network

2 Data Link
Bit Stream

1 Physical Sender Receiver

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Layer 2 – Data Link

7 Application Functions and Examples

6 Presentation • Transfers data between nodes on the same logical

segment using hardware addresses
• Encapsulation: organizes stream of bits arriving
5 Session
from the Physical layer into frames
• Examples: NIC, bridge, switch, wireless access point
4 Transport

3 Network
G1 Host AA
2 Data Link
G2 Host AB
1 Physical
G3 Host AC
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Layer 3 – Network
Functions and Examples
7 Application
• Moving data around a network of
6 Presentation networks using network and host IDs
• Packets given a destination IP address and
5 Session forwarded to the destination network
• Examples: Router, IP, ACL, Basic Firewall
4 Transport

3 Network Network 9

2 Data Link Router A Router B:

1.254 2.254
1 Physical
Network 1 Network 1
(Hosts 1.1, 1.2, 1.3) (Hosts 2.1, 2.2, 2.3)
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Layer 4 - Transport

7 Application Functions and Examples

6 Presentation • Tracks communication between applications on
source and destination hosts
5 Session • Segments data and manages each data piece
• Reassembles segments into application data
4 Transport • Examples: Multilayer switches, advanced firewalls,
intrusion detection systems (IDSs)
3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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Layer 4 – Transport

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Responsibility of Host
7 Application

6 Presentation
Responsibility
of the Host 5 Session

4 Transport

3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical
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Layer 5 - Session

7 Application Functions and Examples

6 Presentation
• Establishes and manages the
5 Session connections between applications
• Examples: ASP, ADSP, NetBIOS, PAP
4 Transport

3 Network
Authentication
2 Data Link Request

Session Established
1 Physical
Respond

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Layer 6 - Presentation
Functions and Examples
7 Application • Delivers data across network
6 Presentation
connections
• Examples: MIME,
5 Session Encryption/Decryption Services

4 Transport
Application Layer Data Application Layer Data
3 Network
Presentation Layer
Presentation Layer
2 Data Link Decrypted, Decoded, and
Encrypted, Encoded, Compressed
Decompressed
1 Physical Session Layer Data Session Layer Data

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Layer 7 - Application
Functions and Examples
7 Application
• Interacts directly with end-user’s
6 Presentation software applications for network
service
5 Session
• Examples: SMTP, DNS, FTP
4 Transport

3 Network

2 Data Link
Human Machine
1 Physical Readable Readable
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SOHO Networks
SOHO & OSI

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 Think About It
What is a SOHO router?
And what is it used for?

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SOHO Router – Physical Layer

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SOHO Router – Data Link Layer
• Ethernet switch
• Wireless access point
• Each host interface
identified by a MAC
address

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SOHO Router – Network Layer
• Forwards between local
private network and
public internet
• Runs a DHCP server to
provide each host with
an IP address
• Router’s WAN interface
given a public IP address

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SOHO Router – Transport and
Application
Application Layer
Request and
Response

Transport Transport
Layer Layer
Segmentation Reassembly

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OSI Questions?

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Break… Back in 15 minutes

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Ethernet
Ethernet Concepts and Cabling

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Network Data Transmission Terms

Data Data is sent Digital signals

transmission is point-to point via (1s and 0s) are
transferring data wired or wireless transmitted
from one device streams or across the
to another. channels. channels.
Error
Transmission
detection/corre
media include The speed at
ction
copper wires, which the data is
mechanisms
fiber optic sent is the data
detect
cables, or transfer rate.
transmission
wireless signals.
errors.
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Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

Collision
Purpose Process Resolution
Detection

Carrier Sense Jam Signal

Regulates
If two devices
communication
transmit
in networks
simultaneously,
with shared
a collision is
transmission
detected.
mediums
Backoff
Multiple Access
Algorithm

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CSMA/CD Diagram

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Ethernet Standards
IEEE 802.3 standards define the physical layer and data link
layer’s media access control (MAC) for wired Ethernet.

Standard Cables Speed

10Base-T Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) 10 Mbps
100Base-T Cat5e or higher 100 Mbps
1000Base-T Cat6 or higher 1000 Mbps
Gigabit Ethernet
10GBase-T Cat6 or higher 10 000Mbps; or
10 Gigabit Ethernet 10 Gbps
100Base-TX Cat5 or higher 100 Mbps
Fast Ethernet
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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Structure

• Contains 2 to 1800 pairs in a plastic jacket

Interference

• Minimal EMI protection

Use

• Popular for LANs because it is cost-effective

Categories

• Grades like Cat5e (1 Gbps) and Cat6a (10 Gbps)

Installation

• Avoid sharp bends, keep away from EMI sources

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Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP)

Structure Interference Use Categories Installation

High-
Twisted EMI Grades such Careful
interference
copper wires protection as Cat5e, 6, 7 handling
areas

Sensitive
Conductive Reduced Avoid sharp
data
shielding crosstalk bends
transmission

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Ethernet Connectors
Feature RJ11 RJ45

Image

Configuration 6 positions, 4 connectors 8 positions, 8 connectors

Usage Phone and modem Computer networking

Bandwidth 24 Mbps 10 Gbps over Ethernet

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T568A and T568B Termination Standards

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Plenum and Riser-Rated Cable

Plenum-rated Riser-rated
Used in vertical spaces
Installed in plenum spaces
between floors

Made of fire-resistant low

Fire-resistant
toxic materials

Meets higher fire safety Prevent spread of fire

standards between floors

More expensive More cost-effective

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Coaxial and Twinaxial Cable
Feature Coaxial Twinaxial

Image

Configuration Central conductor, insulation, metallic Two inner conductors in a twisted pair,
shield, outer jacket insulation, outer jacket
Usage TV, Internet, radio signals, CCTV 10 GB Ethernet networks

Bandwidth Wide range of frequencies, high-speed Very-short range high-speed

data transmission
Connectors BNC, TNC, SMA Proprietary
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Fiber Ethernet Standards

Standard Cables Speed

100Base-FX MMF (OM1) 100 Mbps
100Base-SX MMF (OM1, OM2) 100 Mbps
1000Base-SX MMF (OM2, OM3) 1 Gbps
1000Base-LX MMF (OM1, OM2, OM3), SMF 1 Gbps
(OS1, OS2)
10GBase-SR MMF (OM2, OM3, OM4) 10 Gbps
10GBase-LR SMF (OS1,OS2) 10 Gbps
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 Fiber Optic Considerations
Fiber optic cables

• Thin stands of glass or plastic

• Transmit data using light pulses

Composition

• Core: ultra-pure strands of glass

• Cladding: reflects light back into the core
• Buffer: outer protective jacket

Benefits

• Transmit data up to 800 Gbps

• Maintain signal quality over long distances
• Immune to electromagnetic interference

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 Single Mode and Multimode Fiber
Factor Single Mode Multimode

Core diameter Small core allowing only one light to Larger core allowing multiple light
pass through modes to pass through
Light transmission Light travels directly down the fiber Light bounces more causing more
with minimal reflection and dispersion and attenuation
attenuation
Distance and Suitable for long distances Best for shorter distances
bandwidth
Applications Long-haul networks, high-speed Datacenters, LANs
broadband, telecommunications
Cost More expensive Less expensive

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Fiber Optic Connector Types
Factor Subscriber Connector (SC) Lucent Connector (LC) Straight Tip Connector (ST)

Image

Ferrule Size 2.5 mm 1.25 mm 2.5 mm

Applications Telecommunications Heavily populated patch LANS and datacenters

networks, data panels and cabinets
transmission
Features Push-pull design, quick Square shape, duplex Bayonet twist-lock, older
deployment, low insertion header design but still widely used
loss, durability
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Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(WDM) Allows multiple data channels to share the
same fiber using different wavelengths of light

Bidirectional WDM (BiDi): Coarse WDM (CWDM): Dense WDM (DWDM):

• Supports Tx and Rx over the same fiber • Supports up to 16 wavelengths • Provisions more channels (20, 40, 80, or
strand • Typically used for 4-8 bidirectional 160)
• Uses shifted wavelengths (1310 nm for Tx, channels on a single strand • Requires precise lasers due to less spacing
1490 nm for Rx) • Can also be used for unidirectional between channels
• Requires installation in opposite pairs channels on dual strands • Supports multi-channel
• Documented in Ethernet standards 1G, 10G, and 40G Ethernet links
(1000BASE-BX, 10GBASE-BX) • Transceivers installed in opposite pairs for
proper function

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Cable Troubleshooting

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Specifications and Limitations: Part One

Understanding Speed vs. Throughput

Specifications Throughput Factors
• Compare • Physical Layer: • Average data
expected vs. Symbols transfer rate
actual transmitted, over time
performance measured in • Affected by
• Assess speed, baud rate (Hz) encoding,
throughput, • Data Link Layer: errors, distance,
distance Nominal bit rate interference
or bandwidth
(bps)

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Specifications and Limitations: Part
Two
Measurement
Latency Distance Limitations
Layers
• Network/Transport • Speed of packet • Media type dictates
Layer: Throughput delivery, measured bit rate over
• Application Layer: in milliseconds distance
Goodput (ms) • Attenuation (dB
(accounting for • Also known as loss) and
packet loss) latency or delay interference (SNR)
impact
performance

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Cable Issues: Symptoms
Random
Slow Internet disconnections Connection
speeds and timeouts
reconnections

Lagging Frequent drops

Slowing down
audio/video or unstable
of applications
communication network link

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Cable Issues: Troubleshooting

Use
Substitute Test Check
alternative Verify
Physical Verify patch patch cords transceivers structured
hosts or drivers and
inspection cord with known with a cabling with
switch ports network
of cables connections good ones if loopback appropriate
to test adapter
faulty tool tools
connectivity

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Cable Testers
Diagnosis with Cable Testing Tools

• Used when cable is not directly accessible

• Diagnose intermittent connectivity or
performance issues

Cable Tester Functions

• Reports on physical and electrical properties

• Tests conditions, crosstalk, attenuation,
noise, resistance

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Wire Map Testers and Tone Generators
Wire Map Testers Tone Generators
• Detect improper cable • Trace cables through
termination walls or identify active
• Use base and remote cables in a bundle
units to test each wire • Known as “Fox and
conductor Hound”
• Identify issues like open • Apply signal to trace
circuits, shorts, and cable with a probe
incorrect pin-outs

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Attenuation Issues
Loss of signal strength in networking cables or connections
(measured in decibels (dB) or voltage)

• Signal strength loss during transmission

•

Issues
Higher impedance, higher attenuation
• Long cabling distance
• Thin wire size
• Environmental factors

• Shorten cable lengths

Solutions
• Use repeaters/extenders
• Upgrade to high-quality cables
• Measure and test signal attenuation at installation

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Interference Issues
Negative effects of electromagnetic, radio frequency, and electrostatic signals on
cable transmissions

• Electromagnetic interference (EMI)

Issues
• Radio frequency interference (RFI)
• Crosstalk from adjacent wires
• Defective connectors/conductors

• Shielding techniques (foil/braided shields)

Solutions
• Systematic cable routing and organization
• Use robust materials and strain relief
• Compatibility testing

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Crosstalk Issues
Interference caused by signal overlap cables
Near End Crosstalk • Crosstalk at transmitter
(NEXT) • Caused by untwisting, faulty shields

Attenuation to • Insertion loss vs. NEXT

Crosstalk Radio, Near • High value: strong signal
End (ACRN)
Attenuation to • FEXT at recipient end
Crosstalk Radio, Far • Independent of link length
End (ACRF)

• For Gigabit/10 GbE Ethernet

Power Sum • Ensures cable suitability

• Interference from nearby cables

Alien Crosstalk: • Due to tight bundling, bad termination

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Crosstalk Issues: Solutions
Check for physical damage
and improper installation

Avoid excessive untwisting

Ensure proper bundling

Use appropriate cable types

and connectors

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Cabling/Connector Questions?

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Break… Back in 15 minutes

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Activity: Unscramble the OSI Model

Network Session
Data Link
i ca t i on
A p p l Transp
o rt

Physical Presentation

Physical Data Link Network Transport Session Presentation Application

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Activity: Multiple Choice
A company is setting up a network in an
industrial environment where machinery often
causes significant electromagnetic interference.
The network requires a cabling solution that
can handle high-speed data transfer while also
being resistant to this interference. The cable
will be used to connect servers within the same
data center, and the runs will not exceed 100
meters.

A. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

B. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
C. Coaxial Cable
D. Fiber Optic Cable

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Activity: Think About It

What are some

symptoms of cabling
issues?

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Packet Tracer Lab
• Packet Tracer – Class Activity
1. Visit NetAcad.com and create an account
o Click login in the top right, then at the bottom of the login window
click Sign up.
2. After getting your account, and logging in. Scroll down
to Resources, and click Packet Tracer
3. Under Download, select the 64bit installer that works for
you (windows, Linux/Ubuntu, or Mac).
4. Install Packet Tracer, keeping all the default options,
then log into Packet Tracer with your NetAcad account.
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Packet Tracer Lab
• From D2L, in the week 2 folder, download ‘Packet
Tracer 1 – Help and Navigation Tips’ files (.docx
& .pka)
• Open the .pka in Packet Tracer and follow the steps
to learn about Packet Tracer and how it functions.
• Complete the Questions in the Word document and
submit to the dropbox in D2L when complete.

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