RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
– DATA
ANALYSIS
Bernard Yaw Sekyi Acquah (DED)
DASSE,UCC
DATA ANALYSIS
Data Analysis
A process of inspecting, cleaning,
transforming, and modelling data with the goal
of highlighting useful information, suggesting
conclusions, and supporting decision making.
A process of putting relevant meanings to a set
of data.
Data analysis could be quantitatively or
qualitatively done
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Quantitative Data Analysis
Is basically the process of presenting and interpreting
numerical data.
Statistics employed for quantitative data analysis could be
descriptive or inferential
Descriptive Statistics
These describe what the data look like
They include measures of central tendency (averages - mean,
median and mode) and measures of variability about the
average (range and standard deviation).
These give the reader a 'picture' of the data collected and
used in the research project.
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Inferential Statistics
These are used to make inferences about large
populations by collecting data on relatively
small samples.
They enable us to test hypothesis regarding
what is true for a large population .
Examples include the t-test, Chi-square, ANOVA,
T-TEST, CORRELATION TEST, etc
DETERMINATION OF STATISTICAL
PROCEDURE
Different statistics are appropriate for
different kinds of data, so the researcher must
ensure that the data:
Involve continuous or discrete variables
Represent nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio
scales
Follow a normal or non – normal distribution
Have been collected on a single group or two
or more groups
DETERMINATION OF STATISTICAL
PROCEDURE
The researcher must also determine whether
parametric or non- parametric statistics will be used
Parametric statistics are based on certain assumptions
about the nature of the population in question.
For example:
1. The data are measured at either the interval or ratio
scale,
2. The data fall in a normal distribution,
3. Randomization in sampling (especially for
experimental)
The most complex and powerful inferential statistics are
based on parametric statistics, e.g. T-TEST, ANOVA,
PEARSON’S CORRELATION, etc.
DETERMINATION OF STATISTICAL
PROCEDURE
Non – parametric statistics , on the other hand,
are not based on such stringent assumptions.
They are more appropriate for nominal and
ordinal data rather than interval data.
When the assumptions underlying parametric
tests are violated then their non-parametric
alternatives are appropriate.
Examples include: Chi-square, Mann-Whitney U
Test, Kruskal Wallis, Spearman’s Rank Order
Correlation, etc
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS: Nominal
Level
Mode
Frequencies
Correlation coefficients
both nominal variables (phi coefficient).
One nominal the other ordinal/interval/ratio
(point biserial)
Chi – square
One group (Chi - Square of independence)
Two dependent group (chi square of Mcnemar)
Two independent groups (chi – square of
homogeneity)
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS: Ordinal
Level
Median
Frequencies
Correlation coefficient
Ifboth variables are ordinal (spearman rank order
correlation)
One ordinal the other interval/ratio scale, the data
should be converted to ranks in order to compute
spearman’s rho
Chi – square
Nominal vrs ordinal
One group (chi – square of independence)
Two dependent groups (chi – square of Mcnemar)
Two independent groups (chi – square of
homogeneity)
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS: Ordinal
Level
Tests of difference between distributions
Two dependent groups (Wilcoxon matched pairs
signed rank test)
Two independent samples (Mann – Whitney u
test)
Three or more independent samples (Kruskal –
Wallis test)
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS: Interval
Level
Mean
Frequencies
Standard deviation
Z – scores
Pearson’s product moment correlation
(scatter diagram may be used)
Chi – square
One group (chi – square of independence)
Two dependent groups (chi – square of Mcnemar)
Two independent groups (chi – square of
homogeneity)
Tests of difference between distributions (t –
test, Anova)
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS: Interval
Level
Tests of difference between distributions
One group (t – test)
Two independent samples (two independent
samples t -test)
Three or more independent samples (F test or
Anova)
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS: Ratio Level
Mean
Frequencies
Standard deviation
Z – scores
Pearson’s product moment correlation
(scatter diagram may be used)
Chi – square
One group (chi – square of independence)
Two dependent groups (chi – square of Mcnemar)
Two independent groups (chi – square of
homogeneity)
Tests of difference between distributions (t –
test, Anova)
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS: Ratio Level
Tests of difference between distributions
One group (t – test)
Two independent samples (two independent
samples t -test)
Three or more independent samples (F test or
Anova)
QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS
Qualitative data analysis is the process
of presenting and interpreting non-
numerical data.
Some of the qualitative data analysis
techniques that can be used are:
Content Analysis
Narrative Analysis
Discourse analysis
Framework Analysis
Grounded Theory
QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS
Content Analysis
process of categorizing verbal or behavioural data
to classify, summarize and tabulate the data
Narrative Analysis
the reformulation of stories presented by
respondents taking into account context of each
case and different experiences of each respondent
Discourse analysis
A method of analysis of naturally occurring talk and
all types of written text
QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS
Framework Analysis
This is more advanced method that consists
of several stages such as familiarization,
identifying a thematic framework, coding,
charting, mapping and interpretation
Grounded Theory
starts with an analysis of a single case to
formulate a theory. Then, additional cases are
examined to see if they contribute to the
theory
QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS
Steps in Qualitative Data Analysis
1. Developing and Applying Codes - Coding is
categorization of data
Types of coding
Open coding. The initial organization of raw
data to try to make sense of it.
Axial coding. Interconnecting and linking the
categories of codes.
Selective coding. Formulating the story
through connecting the categories.
QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS
Steps in Qualitative Data Analysis
2. Identifying themes, patterns and
relationships
Word and phrase repetitions – scanning
primary data for words and phrases most
commonly used by respondents, as well as,
words and phrases used with unusual emotions;
Primary and secondary data comparisons –
comparing the findings of interview/focus
group/observation/any other qualitative data
collection method with the findings of literature
review and discussing differences between
them;
QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS
Steps in Qualitative Data Analysis
2. Identifying themes, patterns and
relationships
Search for missing information – discussions
about which aspects of the issue was not
mentioned by respondents, although you
expected them to be mentioned;
Metaphors and analogues – comparing
primary research findings to phenomena from a
different area and discussing similarities and
differences.
QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS
Steps in Qualitative Data Analysis
3. Summarizing the data – linking research
findings to research aims and objectives
use noteworthy quotations from the
transcript to highlight major themes
COMMON MYTHS IN DATA ANALYSIS
Complex analysis and big words impress
people.
Most people appreciate practical and understandable
analyses.
Analysis comes at the end after all the data
are collected.
Think about analysis upfront so that you can collect all
the data you need to analyze.
Quantitative analysis is the most accurate
type of data analysis.
Some think numbers are more accurate than words
but it is the quality of the analysis process that
matters.
COMMON MYTHS IN DATA ANALYSIS
Data have their own meaning.
Data must be interpreted. Numbers do not speak
for themselves.
Stating limitations to the analysis weakens
the evaluation.
Allanalyses have weaknesses; it is more honest and
responsible to acknowledge them.
Computer analysis is always easier and
better.
Itdepends upon the size of the data set and
personal competencies. For small sets of
information, hand tabulation may be more efficient.
