UNIT I

STRUCTURAL
COMPONENTS OF
MICROPROCESSOR/
MICROCONTROLLER
COMPONENTS OF
MICROPROCESSOR/MICROCONTROLLER

1. INTERNAL CPU INTERCONNECTION

2. ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
3. CONTROL UNIT (CU)
4. REGISTERS
5. OTHER PERIPHERALS
INTERNAL CPU
INTERCONNECTION
INTRODUCTION TO MICROPROCESSOR

A microprocessor is a programmable
electronics chip that has computing and
decision making capabilities similar to the
central processing unit of a computer. Any
microprocessor - based systems having a
limited number of resources are called
microcomputers.
A typical programmable machine can be
represented with three components:
microprocessor, memory, and I/O as
shown in figure:

• These three components work

together to complete a certain task;
consequently, they create a system.
• The machine (system) depicted in the
figure above can be designed to
perform a variety of tasks, including
as turning traffic lights on and off,
computing mathematical functions, or
monitoring a navigation system.
BINARY DIGITS

The microprocessor operates in binary

digits, 0 and 1, also known as bits. Bit
is an abbreviation for the term binary
digit. These digits are represented in
terms of electrical voltages in the
machine.
A MICROPROCESSOR AS A PROGRAMMABLE DEVICE

The microprocessor's programmability means

that it can be programmed to do certain tasks
within its capabilities. A toaster is an example
of a simple programmable device. It can be
configured to stay on for a specific amount of
time by shifting a mechanical lever to "light"
or "dark" mode.
The toaster is meant to interpret and carry out
a single instruction. In contrast, today's
microprocessor is intended to understand and
execute a large number of binary instructions.
A MICROPROCESSOR AS A CPU

We can also view the microprocessor as a primary component of a computer.

Traditionally, the computer is represented in block diagrams as shown below:
MICROPROCESSOR ORGANIZATION

The figure below shows a simplified but formal structure of a microcomputer. It includes four components:
microprocessor, input, output, and memory (Read/Write Memory and Read- Only Memory).We can also
view the microprocessor as a primary component of a computer. Traditionally, the computer is represented
in block diagrams as shown below:
MICROCOMPUTER ORGANIZATION

Arithmetic/Logic Unit. This is the area of

the microprocessor where various computing
functions are performed on data.

Register Array. This area of the

microprocessor consists of various registers.

Control Unit. The control unit provides the

necessary timing and control signals to all
the operations in the microcomputer.
Input. The input section transfers data and instructions in
binary from the outside world to the microprocessor.

Output. The output section transfers data from the

microprocessor to such output devices as light emitting
diodes (LEDs), a cathode-ray tube (CRT), a printer, a
magnetic tape, or another computer.

Memory. Stores such binary information as instructions

and data, and provides that information to the
microprocessor whenever necessary.
The ROM is used to store programs that do not need
alterations. The monitor pro- gram of a single-board
microcomputer is generally stored in the ROM.

The Read/Write Memory (R/WM) is also known as user

memory. It is used to store user programs and data.

System Bus is a communication path between the

microprocessor and peripherals; it is nothing but a group
of wires to carry bits. In fact, there are several buses in
the system.
Arithmeti
c Logic
Unit (ALU)
What is ALU?
- ALU is a digital circuit that provides
arithmetic and logic operations. It is the
fundamental building block of the central
processing unit of a computer.
How does an ALU
work?
 Input/Output Access
 Instruction Word
 Operation Execution
 Format Code
 Output
 Storage and Flow
 Sequence Logic Unit
Operations
Performed by the
Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU):
 Arithmetic Operations
 Logical Operations
 Bit-Shifting Operations
 Comparison Operations
Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU) Signals
 Opcode
 Data
 Status
General-purpose ALUs
commonly handle these status
signals:
 Overflow
 Carry-Out
 Zero
 Negative
ALU Configurations:
 Accumulator
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
Stack
Register Stack
Register to Register
Register Memory
Control
Unit (CU)
 What is CU?
Control unit controls and coordinates all
the activities of the computer system.
It also controls and communicate with
ALU, I/O devices, primary and secondary
storage devices.
Control unit controls the operation of the
computer system based on the
instruction in the program by executing
them in a proper order.
COMPONENTS OF
CONTROL UNIT
1. Instruction Register
2. Instruction Decoder
3. Timing and Control
logic
2 Types of CU

1. Hardwired Control Unit

2. Micro-programmed Control
Unit
Hardwired
Control Unit
Hardwire control unit controls the
signals are generated by a special
hardware logic circuit without any
change in the structure of the circuit.
In this, the generated signal cannot
be modified for execution in the
processor.
Micro-programmed
Control Unit
In this type, the control store is used to store the control signals which are
encoded during the execution of a program. The control signal is not
generated immediately and decoded because the microprogram stores
address field in the control store. The whole process is a single level. The
micro-operations are done for the execution of micro-instructions in the
program.
REGISTERS
What is
Registers?
Microprocessors have temporary data
holding places called registers. These
memory areas maintain data, such as
computer instructions, storage
addresses, characters and other
data. Some computer instructions
may require the use of certain
registers as part of a command.
Instruction registers - Instruction registers
hold the information about to be executed. The
immediate instructions received from the
system are fetched and stored in these
registers.

Program Counter - These registers are

utilized in keeping the record of a program that
is being executed or under execution.

Accumulator - An accumulator is the most

often utilized register, and it is used to store
information taken from memory.

Memory Address Register - All the

information that is supposed to be written or
the information that is supposed to be read
from a certain memory address is stored here.
OTHER
PERIPHERALS
Microprocessors and microcontrollers are
key components of computer systems,
embedded systems, and various electronic
devices. In addition to the core processing
unit, they often include other peripherals
and structural components to enhance
their functionality.
GPIO CONTROLLERS
GPIO refers to a set of pins
found on various devices,
including single-board
computers like the
Raspberry Pi and
microcontrollers.
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
CONTROLLERS

PWM controllers generate square

wave signals with varying duty cycles.
These are useful for controlling motor
speed, LED brightness, or analog-like
outputs.
DIGITAL-to-ANALOG
CONVERTERS (DAC)
DACs convert digital values (usually
from microcontroller registers) into
analog voltage or current signals.
They enable precise control over
analog devices.
ANALOG-to-DIGITAL
CONVERTERS (ADC)
ADCs transform analog signals (e.g.,
sensor readings) into digital values
that the microcontroller can process.
SERIAL COMMUNIATION
CONTROLLERS
These controllers handle serial
communication protocols like UART
(Universal Asynchronous Receiver-
Transmitter), SPI (Serial Peripheral
Interface), and I2C (Inter-Integrated
Circuit).
MEMORY
Microcontrollers have built-in memory
(both RAM and ROM) to store program
code, data, and variables.
Memory management is critical for
efficient execution of instructions and
data storage.
INTERRUPT CONTROLLERS
Interrupts are signals that temporarily
pause the main program to handle
urgent tasks (e.g., sensor events or
time-critical operations).
DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS
(DMA) CONTROLLERS
Interrupts are signals that temporarily
pause the main program to handle
urgent tasks (e.g., sensor events or
time-critical operations).