ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS

Lecture- 8 UNIT-VI

PULSE MODULATION

L.V.R Chaitanya Prasad

B.Tech,M.Tech,(Ph.D).
Assistant Professor,ECE,SNIST
 UNIT-VI
PULSE MODULATION

Analog Pulse Modulation: Sampling theorem for base-band and band pass signals
Pulse Amplitude modulation: generation and demodulation,
Time Division Multiplexing system, PPM generation and demodulation,
PWM, Spectra of Pulse modulated signals.
 Topics to be discussed in this Unit

1. Introduction
2.Sampling theorem for Base Band / Band Limited/Low Pass Signals
3. Sampling theorem for Band Pass Signals
4. Problems on Sampling (Nyquist Criteria)
5. Sampling Techniques
6.Pulse Amplitude modulation: Generation and Detection
7. PWM:Generation and Detection
8. PPM:Generation and Detection
9.Time Division Multiplexing and Demultiplexing system
10. Problems
 BOOKS TO BE REFERRED FOR THIS UNIT

1. Simon Haykin, Communication Systems, John Wiley & Sons , 2nd Edition ,1998
2.Analog Communications by Chakravarthy ,Dhanpat Rai Publications
3.Analog Communications by Sanjay Sharma, Kataria Publications
4. George Kennedy and Bernard Davis ,Electronics & Communication System,
TMH,2nd Edition, 2004.
5. Ramakrishna Rao,”Analog Communications”1st edition,TMH
 Introduction

• Most of the signals that we use in our daily life are analog in nature ( for
eg: speech, weather signals etc).
• Digital system possess many advantages in comparison to analog system
such as they are immune to noise, can be stored, processed with more
efficient algorithms, secure, more robust and cost effective etc.
• Most of the effective signal processor are digital signal processors which
needs digital information in order to process it.

5
 Introduction

• Hence there arises a need to convert our analog signal to discrete time
signal in order to process them properly through digital signal processors
and then reconvert them back to analog signals so that we can
understand them.
• Sampling is the answer to this need.
• Sampling is a way to convert a signal from continuous time to discrete
time.

6
 Sampling Theorem
This provides a mechanism for representing a continuous time signal by a discrete time signal ,
taking sufficient number of samples of signal so that original signal is represented in its samples
completely. It can be stated as:

(i) A band-limited signal of finite energy with no frequency component higher than fm Hz, is

𝟏
completely described by its sample values which are at uniform intervals less than or equal to 1/2fm

𝟐𝒇𝒎
seconds apart. [Ts = ]where Ts is sampling time.
(ii) Sampling frequency must be equal to or higher than 2fm Hz. [fs ≥ 2fm]

A continuous time signal may be completely represented in samples and recovered back, if fs≥2fm,
where fs is sampling frequency and fm is maximum frequency component of message signal
 Statement of the Sampling Theorem
1) A band limited signal of finite energy , which has no frequency components higher than W
hertz , is completely described by specifying the values of the signal at instants of time
separated by 1/2W seconds and

2) A band limited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency components higher than W
hertz , may be completely recovered from the knowledge of its samples taken at the rate of
2W samples per second.

The first part of above statement tells about sampling of the signal and second part tells
about reconstruction of the signal.
Above statement can be combined and stated alternately as follows :

A continuous time signal can be completely represented in its samples and recovered back if
the sampling frequency is twice of the highest frequency content of the signal i.e.,

fs≥2W Here fs is the sampling frequency and W is the higher frequency content
 Proof of Sampling Theorem

There are two parts :

I) Representation of x(t) in terms of its samples
II) Reconstruction of x(t) from its samples

PART I: Representation of x(t) in its samples x(nTs)

Step 1 : Define xδ(t)

Step 2 : Fourier transform of xδ(t) i.e. Xδ(f)
Step 3: Relation between X(f) and Xδ(f)
Step 4 : Relation between x(t) and x(nTs)
Step 1 : Define xδ(t)

The sampled signal xδ(t) is given as ,

Here, observe that xδ(t) is the product of x(t) and impulse train δ(t) as shown in figure.
In the above equation δ(t-nTs) indicates the samples placed at ±TsTs,±2s2s,±3Ts3Ts… and so
on
Step 2 : Fourier transform of xδ(t) i.e. Xδ(f)
Taking FT of equation (1)
Conclusions:
i)The RHS of above equation shows that X(f) is placed at±fs,±2fs,±3fs,..at±fs,±2fs,±3fs,..
ii)This means X(f) is periodic in fs.
iii) If sampling frequency is fs=2W , then the spectrums X(f) just touch each other .
Step 3:Relation between X(f) and Xδ (f)

Important assumption
Let us assume that fs=2W ,then as per above diagram .
Since 1/fs=Ts
Putting above expression in equation (3),

Conclusions:
1) Here x(t) is represented completely interms of x(nTs).
2) Above equation holds for fs=2W.This means if the samples are taken at the rate of
2W or higher, x(t) is completely represented by its samples.
 II) Reconstruction of x(t)from its samples

Step 1 : Take inverse Fourier transform of X(f) which is in terms of X δ (f)

Step 2 : Show that x(t) is obtained back with the help of interpolation function.

Step 1 :Take inverse Fourier transform of equation (5) becomes ,

Interchanging the order of summation and integration,
Simplifying above equation,
Conclusions:
The samples x(nTs)are weighted by sinc functions.
The sinc function is the interpolating function .fig 4.1.3 shows, how x(t)is interpolated.
Reconstuction of x(t) by low pass filter

When the interpolated signal of equation (6) is passed through the low pass
filter of bandwidth -W≤f≤W , then the reconstructed waveform shown in
fig.4.1.3(b) is obtained.The individual sinc functions are interpolated to get
smooth x(t).
When high frequency interferes with low frequency and appears as low
frequency , then the phenomenon is called aliasing.
Effects of aliasing:
i)since high and low frequencies interfere with each other , distortion is
generated.
ii)The data is lost and it cannot be recovered.
Different ways to avoid aliasing :
Aliasing can be avoided by two methods
i)sampling rate fs≥2W
ii)Strictly bandlimit the signal to ‘W’
 Alternate Proof of Sampling Theorem
 Sampling of input signal x(t) can be obtained by
multiplying x(t) with an impulse train δ(t) of
period Ts.
 The output of multiplier is a discrete signal called
sampled signal which is represented with y(t) in
the diagrams,
 y(t)=x(t).δ(t)......(1)

The Fourier series representation of δ(t) :

 δ(t)=a0+Σ∞ (ancosnωst + bnsinnωst)......(2)
n=1
T/2
1
𝑇𝑠
1
where a0= ∫ δ(t) dt δ(0) =1
𝑇� -
𝑇
�
= �
T/2
�
T/2
2 2 2 2 2
an=� ∫δ(t)cosnωs dt �
δ(0)cosnω s0= � bn = ∫δ(t)sinnωst dt = δ(0)sinnω 0=0
= �𝑠 -T/2
� � � � s
�� �� �-T/2 �
�
� �
�
 n=∞

δ(t)=𝑇1 +Σ ( 2 cosnωs
t+0) 𝑇� n=1 �
� �

1 n=∞ 2
∴δ(t) = +Σ ( cosnωst+0)
�𝑆 n=1 �
�𝑆 �
Substitute δ(t) in equation 1.
→y(t)=x(t).δ(t)
n=∞
1
= x(t)[𝑇2 +Σ (𝑇 cosnωst+0)]
𝑠 𝑠

1
=𝑇
n=∞
[x(t)+2Σ(cosnωst)x(t)]
n=1
𝑆

y(t)= �𝟏 [x(t)+2cosωs t.x(t)+2cos2ωs t.x(t)+2cos3ωs t.x(t)......]

�
Take Fourier
�� transform on both sides.
Y(ω) = 1�[X(ω)+ X(ω-ω s) +X(ω+ω s)+X(ω-2ω s)+X(ω+2ω )+
s X(ω+3ω )+………..]
s
�
��
 �
To reconstruct x(t), one has to recover input signal spectrum X(ω) from sampled signal spectrum Y(ω),
�

which is possible when there is no overlapping between the cycles of Y(ω) which is possible if
fs≥2fm

For fs=2fm, is known as Nyquist rate.

𝟏
Ts = 2fm
is known as Nyquist interval

Aliasing Effect
The overlapped region in case of under sampling
represents Aliasing effect. It can be termed as “the phenomenon of a high-frequency component in the
spectrum of a signal, taking on the identity of a lower-frequency component in the spectrum of its
sampled version.
This effect can be removed by considering
(i) fs >2fm or
(ii) by using anti aliasing filters which are low pass filters and eliminate high frequency components
 Low-Pass Filter
with transfer function H(ω) X s ( )
ωs-ωm
fs > 2fm
Oversampling
s -ωm 0 ωm s 2s

X s ( )
fs = 2fm
Perfect sampling
s -ωm 0 ωm s 2s

X s ( )
Aliasing
fs < 2fm
 s 0 s s
2 Undersampling
Spectrum of a typical Sampled Signal
23
 Aliasing effect

• Aliasing refers to the phenomenon of a high frequency component in

the spectrum of a signal seemingly taking on the identity of a lower
frequency in the spectrum of its sampled version (under- sampled
version of the message signal)

Aliasing effect can be removed by considering

(i)fs >2fm or
(ii)by using anti aliasing filters which are low pass filters and eliminate
high frequency components

24
 Sampling Method

x(t)  xs (t)  x[nTs ]

Analog Discrete
signal signal

p(t)

• Analog signal is sampled every Ts secs.

• Ts is referred to as the sampling interval/Nyquist interval.
• fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency or

Nyquist rate.
2
5
 Sampling Methods/ Techniques

• There are 3 sampling Methods/techniques:

• Ideal Sampling- an impulse at each sampling instant with amplitude
equals to signal at that point of time.

Ideal Sampling

2
6
 Sampling Methods/ Techniques

• Natural Sampling- a pulse of short width with varying

amplitude

Natural Sampling

2
7
 Sampling Methods/Techniques

• Flat-top Sampling– make use of sample and hold circuit almost

like natural but with single amplitude value.

Flat-top Sampling

2
8
Three types of sampling techniques:

1.Impulse or Instantaneous or Ideal Sampling

2.Natural or Chopper Sampling
3.Flat Top Sampling

 Impulse sampling: Obtained by multiplying input signal x(t) with impulse train of period 'Ts.
Also called ideal sampling. Practically not used because pulse width cannot be zero and the generation
of impulse train not possible.
 Impulse Sampling

• Impulse sampling can be performed by multiplying input signal

x(t) with impulse train

p(t) of period 'Ts'.
p(t)   (t  nT )
s
n

Here, the amplitude of impulse changes with

respect to amplitude of input signal x(t).
p(t)
x(t)
xs (t)

101
0
 Impulse Sampling

• The output of sampler is given by

xs (t)  x(t)  p(t)


 x(t)    (t  nT ) s
n

• Recall the sifting property of impulse function:

x(t)(t  t0 )  x(t0 )(t  t0 )
hence we can write :
(1)
xs (t)  x (t)   x(nTs ) (t nTs )
n

31
 Impulse Sampling

• To take the spectrum of the sampled signal let us take the Fourier
Transform of equation (1) as we know multiplication in time domain
becomes convolution in frequency domain we have:

1 X()* P()
X s ()  X () 2  
where
X () and P() are Fourier transform of x(t) and p(t).
hence 2 
X s ()  X ()
Ts  ( ns )
n
32
 Impulse Sampling

since
2 

FT of p(t)  FT (t  nTs )   T  ( ns )

s n  
Hence the spectrum of sampled signal is given as:
1 
X s ()  X () 
 X (  ns)
T s n

•we can not use ideal/impulse sampling because we can not

generate the impulse train practically.
33
 Natural Sampling

• Natural sampling is similar to impulse sampling, except the

impulse train is replaced by pulse train of
period Ts. p(t)

• The pulse equation is being given


as:
 
2 2
 p(t  nTs )
p(t) n
• When we multiply input signal x(t) to pulse train p(t)
we get the signal as shown below:
x(t) p(t) xs (t)

34
 Natural Sampling

• The output of the sampler is given as:

xs (t)  x(t) p(t)

(1)
 x(t)   p(t  nTs )
n

• The exponential Fourier series representation of p(t)

is given as: 
nj t
p(t )  
C e n
s
(2)
n  
where Ts
2
1  nj t 1
C n
Ts

 Ts
p(t )e s
dt  Ts s

2 P(n )
35
 Natural Sampling

Now putting the value of Cn in equation (2) we have:


1 nj t
p(t)   P (n  s )es
n 
Ts


 1  P(ns )enjt s
Ts n

Now putting the value of p(t) in equation (1) we have:

xs (t)  x(t) p(t)

1
 x(t) 
T
 P(ns ) enj s t
s n

36
 Natural Sampling

• To get the spectrum of the sampled signal let us take the Fourier
Transform of both side:

• Now according to frequency shifting property of FT we have:

FT  x(t)e nj t  X ( )
s

37
 Natural Sampling

• Hence we can say that

• Hence the spectrum of sampled signal is given as:


1
X s() 
Ts  P(n )X ( )
s s
n
X s ()

s 0 s 2s

38
 Flat Top sampling: During transmission, noise is introduced at top of the transmission pulse which
can be easily removed if the pulse is in the form of flat top.
 Here, the top of the samples are flat i.e. they have constant amplitude and is equal to the
instantaneous value of the baseband signal x(t) at the start of sampling. Hence, it is called as flat top
sampling or practical sampling.
 Flat top sampling makes use of sample and hold circuit
 Theoretically, the sampled signal can be obtained
by convolution of rectangular pulse h(t) with
ideally sampled signal ,sδ(t)
g(t)= s(t) ⊗ h(t)
δ(t h(t
) ⊗ ) =

t 0
τ f(t) ⊗ δ(t) = f(t); property of delta function
Applying a modified form; s(t) in place of δ(t)
Aperture Effect: Spectrum of flat topped sample is given by;

This equation shows that signal g(t) is obtained by passing the signal s(t) through a filter having
transfer function H(f).
Figure(a) shows one pulse of rectangular pulse train and each sample of x(t) i.e. s(t) is
convolved with this pulse
Figure (b) shows the spectrum of this pulse. Thus, flat top sampling introduces an amplitude
distortion in reconstructed signal x(t) from g(t). There is a high frequency roll off making H(f)
act like a LPF, thus attenuating the upper portion of message signal spectrum. This is known as
aperture effect
How to minimize aperture effect?? An equalizer at the receiver end is needed to compensate aperture
effect. The receiver contains low pass reconstruction Filter with cut off slightly higher than fm Hz.

PAM
Sign
al
g(t) Reconstructi Message
Equalizer
on Filter signal
x(t)

Equalizer in cascade with reconstruction filter has the effect of decreasing the in band loss of
reconstruction filter, frequency increases in such away so as to compensate aperture effect.
 Pulse Modulation

Analog Pulse Digital Pulse

Modulation Modulation

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Delta Modulation (DM)
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) Adaptive Delta
Modulation(ADM)
Advantage of Pulse modulation: (i) Transmitted power is no longer continuous as in CW
Modulation, but pulsed in nature
(ii) Vacant time between pulse occurrence
filled by interleaving/multiplexing pulse waveforms of some other Message (TDM)
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
 Amplitude of the pulse carrier varies proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message
signal.
 The width and positions of the pulses are constant in this modulation.
 PAM could be:
(i)Single polarity PAM: A suitable fixed DC bias is added to the signal to ensure that all the pulses
are positive.
(ii) Double polarity PAM: In this the pulses are both positive and negative.
 Depending on type of sampling PAM can be:
(i) Ideal Sampling PAM, (ii) Natural sampling PAM and (iii) Flat top PAM.

 The advantage of this modulation is the generation and detection is easy in this modulation and
also allows multiplexing.

 The disadvantage is large band width of transmitted signal.

BPF characteristics
 For a PAM signal produced with natural sampling, the sampled signal follows the waveform of
the input signal during the time that each sample is taken.
 A PAM signal is generated by using a pulse train, called the sampling signal (or clock signal) to
operate an electronic switch or "chopper". This produces samples of the analog message signal.
 The switch is closed for the duration of each pulse, allowing the message signal at that
sampling time to become part of the output.
 The switch is open for the remainder of each sampling period making the output zero. This is
known as Natural PAM.

In simplest form PAM can be visualized as o/p of an

AND gate whose two inputs are message signal x(t)
and pulses at sampling rate

.
 For flat-top sampling, a sample-and-hold circuit is used in conjunction with the chopper to hold
the amplitude of each pulse at a constant level during the sampling time,
 Flat-top sampling, produces pulses whose amplitude remains fixed during the sampling time.
The amplitude value of the pulse depends on the amplitude of the input signal at the time of
sampling.
 Aperture Effect seen in this type of PAM. Equalizers used at receiver end

Transmission Bandwidth in PAM

Transmission of PAM signals

 For PAM signals to be transmitted through space using antennas, they must be amplitude/
frequency/ phase modulated by a high frequency carrier and only then they can be transmitted.
Thus the overall system is PAM-AM. PAM-FM or PAM-PM and at receiving end, AM/ FM/PM
detection is first employed to get the PAM signal and then message signal is recovered.

Drawbacks of PAM
 Bandwidth required for transmission of PAM signal is very large in comparison to maximum
frequency present in modulating signal.
 Since amplitude of PAM pulses varies in accordance with modulating signal so interference of
noise is maximum in PAM
 Variation of the peak power required by transmitter
 Demodulation of PAM
 PAM signal sampled at Nyquist rate can be reconstructed at the receiver end , by passing it
through an efficient Low Pass Filter (LPF) with exact cut off frequency of fs/2. This is
known as Reconstruction or Interpolation Filter.
 The low pass filter eliminates the high-frequency ripples and generates the demodulated
signal. This signal is then applied to the inverting amplifier to amplify its signal level to have
the demodulated output with almost equal amplitude with the modulating signal

 For a flat topped PAM, a holding circuit followed by a LPF gives demodulated signal

Received PAM Holdin

signal g
circuit
 PAM C
signal

Zero order Holding Circuit

 Switch S closes after the arrival of pulse and opens at the end of pulse.
 Capacitor C charges to pulse amplitude value and holds this value during interval between two pulses.
 The sampled values are shown in fig.
 Holding circuit o/p smoothened in LPF.
 Known as zero order holding circuit, which considers only the previous sample to decide value between
two
pulses
 First order holding circuit considers previous two samples, second order holding circuit considers previous three
samples.
 Pulse Time modulation
In PTM, amplitude of pulse is constant while position or width of pulse is made proportional to
the amplitude of the signal at the sampling instant.
 It can be PWM and PPM
 In both the cases amplitude constant and does not carry information so amplitude limiters can be
used ( like in FM) providing good noise immunity

Generation of PTM signals can be either by:

(i) Indirect Method: Firstly PAM signals are generated, Synchronized is generated during each
pulse interval. These two signals are added and the sum is applied to a comparator whose reference
level is suitably chosen. The second crossing of comparator level used for PPM
(ii) Direct method: PTM waveforms generated without using PAM waveforms

Pulse Width /Pulse Duration modulation

The pulse width modulation is the modulation of signals by varying the width of pulses. The amplitude
and
positions of the pulses are constant in this modulation
Generation of PWM and PPM by Direct Method
 The non inverting input of the comparator is fed by the input message or modulating signal
x(t)
and the other input by a saw-tooth signal which operates at carrier frequency.
 The comparator compares the two signals together to generate the PWM signal at its output. Its o/p is
high only when the instantaneous value of x(t) is higher than sawtooth waveform.
 The rising edges of the PWM signal occurs at the fixed time period (kTs) while trailing edge depends
on amplitude of message signal x(t).
 When saw-tooth voltage waveform greater than x(t), o/p of comparator is zero, trailing edge is
modulated
 If saw-tooth. waveform is reversed, trailing edge is fixed while leading edge is modulated.
 Replacing saw-tooth waveform by triangular, both leading and trailing edge modulated.
(symmetrical PWM)
 The amplitude of PDM/PWM will be positive saturation of the comparator shown as ‘A’,
being same
for all pulses,
Three types of pulse-width modulation (PWM) are possible:

 The leading edge of the pulse being constant, the trailing edge varies according to the message
signal.
 The trailing edge of the pulse being constant, the leading edge varies according to the message
signal
 The center of the pulse being constant, the leading edge and the trailing edge varies according
to the message signal (Symmetrical PWM)
Indirect Method:
Modulating signal (A) applied to i/p of PAM circuit [s(t) pulse train] and PAM signal generated(B).
S(t) also is i/p to Ramp generator(Integrator circuit), all having equal slopes, amplitude and
generation(D). These ramp pulses added to PAM pulses to produce varying height samples. These
varying height ramp gates a S.T ckt to generate varying width rectangular pulses of PWM.

E F
PAM B Schmitt
x(t) Summer PW
generator
A M
Trigger

Ramp
D
Generator
C
 Noisy PWM PWM detector
Schmitt
Trigger

Ramp 3 4 5
1 6
Generator Level
Adder Rectifier LPF
Shifter

Synchronization
Pulse generator 2

 Received PWM signal applied to ST circuit to remove noise

 Regenerated PWM applied to Ramp generator
and synchronization pulse.
 Heights of Ramp proportional to width of
pulses.
 Pulse generator produces reference
pulses with constant
amplitude and width but delayed by specific
amount.
 Delayed reference pulses added to o/p of
ramp generator
 The o/p given to level shifter, negative offset shifts
Output Waveforms of PWM Detector
 Pulse position modulation
 (PPM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the amplitude and width of the pulses are kept constant, while
the position of each pulse, with reference to the position of a reference pulse varies according to the
instantaneous sampled value of the message signal.
 The transmitter has to send synchronizing pulses (or simply sync pulses) to keep the transmitter and receiver in
synchronism. These sync pulses help maintain the position of the pulses.
 PPM is done in accordance with the PWM signal.
 PWM signal is used as the trigger input to a monostable multivibrator.
 Its o/p remains zero until it is triggered on the trailing edge of PWM
 O/P of monostable MV switches to positive saturation value A and remains high for fixed period then goes
low
 Hence, the position of these pulses is proportional
to the width of the PWM pulses.
Advantage As the amplitude and width are constant
the power handled is constant
Disadvantage: Synchronization between
Transmitter and receiver is a necessity
 PPM carries exactly the same information as long as the position
of the clock pulses (leading edge) is well defined in the received
signal.
 PPM is superior to PDM for message transmission, since the wide
pulses of PDM require more energy than PPM when transmitted
 PPM is suited for communication in the presence of noise.
 Very high peak narrow pulses can be transmitted and the pulse
position can be determined even when the noise level is high,
 However, transmitting very narrow pulses requires a large band
width
 When light is used as the media for transmitting analog signals,
PPM or PCM are the most suitable types of modulation because
the maximum power output in the modulated light source,
such as LED or LASER is achieved when it is pulsed at a very
low duty cycle.
 In PPM, necessary to transmit a series of sync pulses at a much
lower repetition rate than the sampling pulses, to avoid
interference with original signal and/or minimise the number of
pulses transmitted in order to conserve transmission power
 PPM Detector/Demodulator

1. Flip flop Circuit is set or turned ‘ON’ (giving High output) when the
reference pulse arrives.
2. This reference pulse is generated by reference pulse generator of the
receiver with the synchronization signal from the transmitter
3. The Flip flop circuit is reset or turned ‘OFF’(giving low output) at the
leading edge of the position modulated pulse.
4. This repeats and we get PWM pulses at the output of the flipflop
5. The PWM pulses are then demodulated by PWM demodulator to get
original modulating signal
PPM Detector/Demodulator Waveforms
 Transmission BW of PWM and PPM
 Both PWM and PPM have DC value.
 Both need a sharp rise time and fall time to preserve the message information
 Rise time be very less than Ts i.e. tr≪ Ts
𝟏
 Transmission BW: T
B ≥
 BW higher than PAM
PAM
 The amplitude of the pulse is proportional to the amplitude of modulating the
signal.
 Band width of transmitting channel depends on the width of the pulse
 Instantaneous power of transmitter varies. Noise interference is high
 Complex system. Similar to A.M.
PWM
 Width of pulse is proportional to amplitude of modulating signal.
 The Bandwidth of transmitting channel depends on rise time of the pulse.
 Instantaneous power of transmitter varies. Noise interference is minimum.
 Simple to implement Similar to F.M.
PPM
 Relative position of pulse is proportional to amplitude of modulating signal.
 The bandwidth of transmitting channel depends on the rise time of the pulse.
 Instantaneous power remains constant. Noise interference is minimum.
 Differences Between PAM, PWM, and PPM
Sr.
Parameter PAM PWM PPM
No.

1 Type of Carrier Train of Pulses Train of Pulses Train of Pulses

Variable Characteristic of
2 Amplitude Width Position
the Pulsed Carrier

3 Bandwidth Requirement Low High High

4 Noise Immunity Low High High

5 Information Contained in Amplitude Variations Width Variations Position Variations

6 Low Moderate High

Power efficiency (SNR)
 Differences Between PAM, PWM, and PPM
Sr.
Parameter PAM PWM PPM
No.

Varies with an Varies with variation in

7 Transmitted Power Remains Constant
amplitude of pulses width

Need to transmit
8 Not needed Not needed Necessary
synchronizing pulses

Bandwidth depends on Bandwidth depends on Bandwidth depends on

9 Bandwidth depends on
the width of the pulse the rise time of the pulse the rise time of the pulse

Instantaneous Instantaneous Instantaneous

transmitter power varies transmitter power varies transmitter power
10 Transmitter power
with the amplitude of with the amplitude and remains constant with
the pulses width of the pulses the width of the pulses

The complexity of
11 Easy Moderate Complex
generation and detection
Similarity with other
12 Similar to AM Similar to FM Similar to PM
Modulation Systems
Advantages of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

1. It is the base for all digital modulation techniques and it is simple

process for both modulation and demodulation technique.

2. No complex circuitry is required for both transmission and reception.

Transmitter and receiver circuitry is simple and easy to construct.

3. PAM can generate other pulse modulation signals and can carry the
message or information at same time.
Disadvantages of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

1.Bandwidth should be large for transmitting the pulse amplitude modulation

signal. Due to Nyquist criteria also high bandwidth is required.

2.The frequency varies according to the modulating signal or message signal. Due to
these variations in the signal frequency, interferences will be there. So noise will be
great. For PAM, noise immunity is less when compared to other modulation
techniques. It is almost equal to amplitude modulation.

3. Pulse amplitude signal varies, so power required for transmission will be more, peak
power is also, even at receiving more power is required to receive the pulse
amplitude
signal.
Advantages of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

1.As like pulse position modulation, noise interference is less due to amplitude has been
made constant.

2.Signal can be separated very easily at demodulation and noise can also be separated
easily.

3. Synchronization between transmitter and receiver is not required unlike pulse

position modulation.

Disadvantages of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

1.Power will be variable because of varying in width of pulse. Transmitter can handle
the power even for maximum width of the pulse.

2.Bandwidth should be large to use in communication, should be huge even when

compared to the pulse amplitude modulation.
Advantages of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

1.Pulse position modulation has low noise interference when compared to PAM
because amplitude and width of the pulses are made constant during modulation.

2. Noise removal and separation is very easy in pulse position modulation.

3.Power usage is also very low when compared to other modulations due to constant
pulse amplitude and width.

Disadvantages of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

1.The synchronization between transmitter and receiver is required, which is not

possible for every time and we need dedicated channel for it.

2.Large bandwidth is required for transmission same as pulse amplitude modulation.

3.Special equipments are required in this type of modulations.

Applications of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

1.It is mainly used in Ethernet which is type of computer network communication, we know
that
we can use Ethernet for connecting two systems and transfer data between the systems. Pulse
amplitude modulation is used for Ethernet communications.

2. It is also used for photo biology which is a study of photosynthesis.

3. Used as electronic driver for LED lighting.

4. Used in many micro controllers for generating the control signals etc.
Applications of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

1.PWM is used in telecommunication systems.

2.PWM can be used to control the amount of power delivered to a load without incurring

the losses. So, this can be used in power delivering systems.

3. Audio effects and amplifications purposes also used.

4. PWM signals are used to control the speed of the robot by controlling the motors
.
5. PWM is also used in robotics.

6. Embedded applications.

7. Analog and digital applications etc.

Applications of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

1.Used in non coherent detection where a receiver does not need any Phase lock
loop for tracking the phase of the carrier.

2. Used in radio frequency (RF) communication.

3. Used in contactless smart card, high frequency, RFID (radio frequency ID) tags
etc.
Q. For a PAM transmission of voice signal with fm=3kHz, calculate the transmission BW. Given that
fs=8kHz and the pulse duration τ=0.1Ts
Soln: Ts=𝑓𝑠1 = 125µs
τ =0.1Ts=0.1× 125=12.5µs

Q. For the above signal if rise time is 1% of pulse width, find minimum Tx BW for PWM and PPM?
Soln: tr=τ×0.01= 1.25x 10-7
1
BT≥ ≥ 4MHz
2 𝑟
𝑡
Thus BW of PWM/PPM much higher than PAM
 Multiplexing
 Multiplexing refers to the combination of information streams from multiple sources for
transmission over a shared medium .
 Multiplexor is a mechanism that implements the concept. It permits hundreds or even thousands of
signals to be combined and transmitted over a single medium. De-multiplexing refers to the separation
of a combination, back into separate information streams .
Principle used
 Each sender communicates with a single receiver
 All pairs share a single transmission medium
 Multiplexor combines information from the
senders for transmission in such a way that the de
multiplexer can separate the information for
receivers.
 Cost savings obtained using single channel to send
Multiple signals.
Four basic types of multiplexing
•Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
•Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
•Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) •
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
Frequency Division Multiplex (FDM): Separation of spectrum into smaller frequency.
 Channel gets band of the spectrum for the whole time. Each signal allocated different frequency
band i.e, Multiple carriers used
 Each message signal is limited to fm Hz.
Example: Multiplexing of telephonic signals from n subscribers
Telephonic message (BW=3kHz) and broadcast signal limited
to 5kHz. Without multiplexing if n channels transmitted,
Interference and no useful information.
 In FDM, each baseband signal translated by Analog Modulation (AM/Angle) to different carrier
frequencies.
 Each carrier separated from neighbouring by at least 2fm
 Multiplexed signals can be transmitted over a common channel without interference.
 At receiver, various carrier frequencies selected using BPF tuned to appropriate carrier frequencies
and demodulated by separate detector.
 FDM System

Advantages: No dynamic coordination needed and works also for analog signals

Disadvantages: Waste of bandwidth if traffic distributed uneven; inflexible;

 Time Division Multiplexing
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is the time interleaving of samples from several sources so
that the information from these sources can be transmitted serially over a single communication
channel.
 At the Transmitter :Simultaneous transmission of several signals on a time-sharing basis.
Each signal occupies its own distinct time slot, using all frequencies, for the duration of the
transmission. Slots may be permanently assigned on demand
 At the Receiver : Decommutator (sampler) has to be synchronized with the incoming waveform
 In Pulse modulation techniques, there is a free space between any two consecutive pulses of a
signal. This free space between pulses can be occupied by pulses from other channel. This is
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) and makes maximum utilization of transmission channel.
 Applications of TDM: Digital Telephony, Data communications, Satellite Access, Cellular radio
Block diagram of TDM and PAM-TDM
 The system shows TDM of ‘N’ PAM channels.
 Each channel to be transmitted is passed through LPF to band limit its frequency to fm Hz ( W Hz)
 Outputs of LPF are connected to the rotating sampling switch or commutator.
 It takes sample from each channel per revolution and rotates at the rate of fs.
 Function of commutator is two fold: (i) Taking narrow samples of each of N input messages at
rate 1/Ts (ii) To sequentially interleave N samples Inside a sampling interval Ts

 If W or fm is highest signal frequency in the message signal: fs ≥ 2fmor 2W; Ts or 𝟏/

 The single signal composed due to multiplexing of input channels given to Transmission channel

Thus time interval Ts contains one sample from each input. It is called frame. If N input channels
multiplexed, each frame will have one sample from each of N channel's input
 Spacing between two samples: Ts/N
 No. of pulses/sec=1/ spacing between two pulses=1/(𝑇𝑠/𝑁) = N / Ts
Ts=1/fs; No. of pulses per second=Nfs
 The no. of pulses transmitted per second is called signalling rate of TDM ‘r’
 r=Nfs; fs ≥2fm; r ≥2Nfm or r ≥2NW
 Pulsed TDM passed through LPF to convert it to baseband signal whose BW given by

 B.W=𝒓/𝟐 = Nfm=NW; Minimum Transmission Bandwidth

half signalling rate

 At the receiver, decommutator separates the time multiplexed input channels which then
 Synchronization in TDM system
 The time division multiplexing (TDM) needs synchronization between multiplexer and demultiplexer.
If synchronization is not there between multiplexer and demultiplexer, a bit going to one channel may
be received by the wrong channel.
 Because of this reason, one or more synchronization bits are usually added to the beginning of each
frame called Markers (highest amplitude)
 These bits are called framing bits (Marker pulse), allows the demultiplexer to synchronize with the
incoming stream so that that it can separate time slot accurately.
Marker Pulse

xN-1
x2
x1
 Crosstalk and Guard Times
 RF transmission of TDM needs further modulation
 TDM signal converted to smooth modulating waveform by passing through a baseband filter
 This filtering gives rise to inter-channel crosstalk which means individual signal sample amplitude
interfere with each other. Thus interference between adjacent TDM channels is crosstalk
 This interference can be reduced by increasing distance between individual signal amplitudes
 The minimum distance between individual signal samples to avoid crosstalk is called guard time.
 Ideally communication channel over which TDM signal is transmitted should be infinite but in
practise has a finite BW, known as band limited channels
 Whenever signal passed through band limited channel, shape of signal will change.
 Whenever a PAM-TDM signal transmitted over band limited channel, signals corresponding to x1(t)
get mixed with x2(t) and this overlap causes crosstalk.
𝟎.𝟓
To keep cross talk below -30dB, Tg≥ 𝟓


 Thus, guard time required to avoid cross talk decreases with increase in BW
Transmission Bandwidth for ‘N’ PAM-TDM channels:
Nfm Where fm is the maximum frequency of
baseband signal Advantages:
 Full available channel BW can be utilized.
 TDM circuitry not very complex
 Problem of cross talk not very severe

Disadvantages
 Synchronization for proper operation
 Applications of TDM

1. TDM or Time Division Multiplexing is used in Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)

transmission system.
2.Time Division Multiplexing is used in Integrated Service Digital Network or
ISDN telephone system.

3.TDM is used in GSM or Global System for Mobile communication

technology.

4.TDM is used in Satellite Access system and Cellular Radio.

5. TDM also used in Public Switched Telephone Network or PSTN system.

6.Time Division Multiplexing or TDM is used in SONET(Synchronous Optical
Networking)
Basis for Comparison FDM TDM
Definition A technique that allows transmission A technique that permits the flow of
of multiple signals using different multiple data signal over a
frequency slots over a common link. communication link in different time
domains.

Stands for Frequency Division Multiplexing Time Division Multiplexing

Multiplexing technique Analog Digital

Synchronization Not Needed Necessary

Circuit Orientation Complex Comparatively simple.

Cross talk Exist Does not exist

Propagation Delay Not sensitive Sensitive
Efficiency Less More efficient than FDM system

Cost High Comparatively low.

 Revision of this Unit

1. Introduction
2.Sampling theorem for Base Band / Band Limited/Low Pass Signals
3. Sampling theorem for Band Pass Signals
4. Problems on Sampling (Nyquist Criteria)
5. Sampling Techniques
6.Pulse Amplitude modulation: Generation and Detection
7. PWM:Generation and Detection
8. PPM:Generation and Detection
9.Time Division Multiplexing and Demultiplexing system
10. Problems
11.Applications ,Advantages and Disadvantages of PAM,PWM,PPM
12.Applications of TDM
THANK YOU