Introduction to computer

systems - Overview of
Organization and
Architecture
Module 1
Introduction about Computer
Organization and Architecture
Computer Architecture refers to the design, structure, and organization
of a computer system. It involves understanding how various
components of a computer interact with each other to execute
instructions and perform tasks. The architecture defines the framework
for building a computer system, including both hardware and the way
instructions are processed.
Introduction
Central Processing Unit: The heart of the computer that performs
arithmetic and logical operations. The CPU fetches, decodes, and
executes instructions.
Memory: The storage units of a computer, divided into primary (RAM)
and secondary (hard drives). It holds data and instructions for the CPU
to process.
Data Representation: Understanding how data (numbers, characters,
etc.) is represented in binary form as computers operate using binary
numbers (0s and 1s).
Introduction
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): A set of instructions the CPU is capable
of executing. The ISA defines the basic operations (add, subtract, move,
etc.) and the formats of these instructions.
Pipelining: A technique that allows multiple instruction stages to be
processed simultaneously, improving the efficiency of instruction
execution.
Memory Hierarchy: The organization of different types of memory
(cache, RAM, hard disk) based on speed and size. Faster memories are
smaller and placed closer to the CPU.
Input/Output (I/O) Systems: The methods through which a computer
communicates with the outside world, including peripherals like
keyboards, mice, and printers.
Introduction
Bus Systems: Communication pathways that allow data to be
transferred between components like the CPU, memory, and
peripherals.
Parallelism: Techniques like multi-core processors and hyper-threading
that allow multiple instructions or tasks to be executed simultaneously,
enhancing performance.
Cache Memory: A small, fast type of memory located closer to the CPU
used to store frequently accessed data and instructions.
Introduction to Computer System
• A computer is an electronic device that can be programmed to accept
data (input), process it and generate result (output). A computer along
with additional hardware and software together is called a computer
system. A computer system primarily comprises a central processing unit
(CPU), memory, input/output devices and storage devices.
• All these components function together as a single unit to deliver the
desired output. A computer system comes in various forms and sizes. It
can vary from a high-end server to personal desktop, laptop, tablet
computer, or a smartphone.
• Figure shows the block diagram of a computer system. The directed lines
represent the flow of data and signal between the components.
Introduction to Computer System
• “A computer would deserve to be called intelligent if it could deceive
a human into believing that it was human.” –Alan Turing
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• It is the electronic circuitry of a computer that carries out the actual
processing and usually referred as the brain of the computer. It is
commonly called processor also. Physically, a CPU can be placed on
one or more microchips called integrated circuits (IC). The ICs
comprise semiconductor materials.
• The CPU is given instructions and data through programs. The CPU
then fetches the program and data from the memory and performs
arithmetic and logic operations as per the given instructions and
stores the result back to memory.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• While processing, the CPU stores the data as well as instructions in its
local memory called registers. Registers are part of the CPU chip and
they are limited in size and number. Different registers are used for
storing data, instructions or intermediate results.
• Other than the registers, the CPU has two main components —
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU). ALU performs all
the arithmetic and logic operations that need to be done as per the
instruction in a program. CU controls sequential instruction execution,
interprets instructions and guides data flow through the computer’s
memory, ALU and input or output devices. CPU is also popularly
known as microprocessor.
Input Devices
Input Devices
• The devices through which control signals are sent to a computer are
termed as input devices. These devices convert the input data into a
digital form that is acceptable by the computer system. Some
examples of input devices include keyboard, mouse, scanner, touch
screen, etc., as shown in Figure Specially designed braille keyboards
are also available to help the visually impaired for entering data into a
computer. Besides, we can now enter data through voice, for
example, we can use Google voice search to search the web where
we can input the search string through our voice.
Input Devices
• Data entered through input device is temporarily stored in the main
memory (also called RAM) of the computer system. For permanent
storage and future use, the data as well as instructions are stored
permanently in additional storage locations called secondary memory.
Output Devices
• The device that receives data from a computer system for display,
physical production, etc., is called output device. It converts digital
information into human understandable form.
• For example, monitor, projector, headphone, speaker, printer, etc.
Some output devices Figure. Input devices Scanner Touch Screen
Keyboard Mouse Figure. Output devices Speaker Printer 3D printer
Display monitor 2024-25 Computer System 3 are shown in Figure. A
braille display monitor is useful for a visually challenged person to
understand the textual output generated by computers.
Output Devices
• A printer is the most commonly used device to get output in physical
(hardcopy) form. Three types of commonly used printers are inkjet,
laserjet and dot matrix. Now-a-days, there is a new type of printer
called 3D-printer, which is used to build physical replica of a digital 3D
design. These printers are being used in manufacturing industries to
create prototypes of products. Their usage is also being explored in
the medical field, particularly for developing body organs.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND
ARCHITECTURE
Computer Architecture:

• Computer Architecture deals with giving operational attributes of the

computer or Processor to be specific. It deals with details like physical
memory, ISA (Instruction Set Architecture) of the processor, the
number of bits used to represent the data types, Input Output
mechanism and technique for addressing memories.
Computer Organization:
• Computer Organization is realization of what is specified by the
computer architecture .It deals with how operational attributes are
linked together to meet the requirements specified by computer
architecture. Some organizational attributes are hardware details,
control signals, peripherals.
• EXAMPLE:if you are in a company that manufactures cars, design and
all low-level details of the car come under computer architecture
(abstract, programmers view), while making it’s parts piece by piece
and connecting together the different components of that car by
keeping the basic design in mind comes under computer organization
(physical and visible).
Difference Between Computer
Organization and Architecture
S. No. Computer Organization Computer Architecture
1 Often called microarchitecture (low level) Computer architecture (a bit higher level)
2 Transparent from programmer (ex. a Programmer view (i.e. Programmer has to be aware
programmer does not worry much how of which instruction set used)
addition is implemented in hardware)
3 Physical components (Circuit design, Logic (Instruction set, Addressing modes, Data
Adders, Signals, Peripherals) types, Cache optimization)
4 How to do ? (implementation of the What to do ? (Instruction set)
architecture)
GENERATIONS OF A COMPUTER
• Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a
computer is/was being used. Initially, the generation term was used
to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. But nowadays,
generation includes both hardware and software, which together
make up an entire computer system. There are totally five computer
generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in
detail along with their time period and characteristics. Here
approximate dates against each generations have been mentioned
which are normally accepted. Following are the main five generations
of computers
First generation
The period of first generation was 1946-1959. The
computers of first generation used vacuum tubes as
the basic components for memory and circuitry for
CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes, like
electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and were prone
to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were
very expensive and could be afforded only by very
large organizations. In this generation mainly batch
processing operating system were used. Punched
cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape were used as
input and output devices. The computers in this
generation used machine code as programming
language.
 Second generation
• The period of second generation was 1959-
1965. In this generation transistors were used
that were cheaper, consumed less power, more
compact in size, more reliable and faster than
the first generation machines made of vacuum
tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were
used as primary memory and magnetic tape
and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices. In this generation assembly language
and high-level programming languages like
FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers
used batch processing and multiprogramming
operating system.
Third generation
• The period of third generation was 1965-1971.
The computers of third generation used
integrated circuits (IC's) in place of transistors. A
single IC has many transistors, resistors and
capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This
development made computers smaller in size,
reliable and efficient. In this generation remote
processing, time-sharing, multi-programming
operating system were used. Highlevel languages
(FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC,
ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.
 Fourth generation
• The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980. The
computers of fourth generation used Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000
transistors and other circuit elements and their
associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to
have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth
generation computers became more powerful, compact,
reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to
personal computer (PC) revolution. In this generation
time sharing, real time, networks, distributed operating
system were used. All the high-level languages like C, C+
+, DBASE etc., were used in this generation.
Fifth generation
• The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation,
the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having
ten million electronic components. This generation is based on
parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software.
AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means
and method of making computers think like human beings. All the
high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this
generation.
Fifth generation
Fifth generation

• Chrome Book
COMPUTER TYPES
Classification based on Operating
Principles
Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into one
of the following types: -
1) Digital Computers
2) Analog Computers
3) Hybrid Computers
Digital Computers:

Operate essentially by counting. All quantities are expressed as discrete

or numbers. Digital computers are useful for evaluating arithmetic
expressions and manipulations of data (such as preparation of bills,
ledgers, solution of simultaneous equations etc).
Analog Computers:

An analog computer is a form of computer that

uses the continuously changeable aspects of
physical phenomena such as electrical,
mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the
problem being solved. In contrast, digital
computers represent varying quantities
symbolically, as their numerical values change.
Hybrid Computers:
Computers that exhibit features of analog computers and digital
computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller
and provides logical operations, while the analog component normally
serves as a solver of differential equations.
Classification digital Computer
based on size and Capability
Based on size and capability, computers are broadly classified into
Micro Computers(Personal Computer)
A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system.
The older pc started 8 bit processor with speed of 3.7MHZ and current
pc 64 bit processor with speed of 4.66 GHZ.
Examples: - IBM PCs, APPLE computers Microcomputer can be classified
into 2 types: 1. Desktops 2. Portables The difference is portables can be
used while travelling whereas desktops computers cannot be carried
around.
Classification digital Computer
based on size and Capability
The different portable computers are: -
1) Laptop
2) Notebooks
3) Palmtop (hand held)
4) Wearable computers
Laptop: - this computer is similar to a desktop computers but the size is
smaller. They are expensive than desktop. The weight of laptop is
around 3 to 5 kg.
Classification digital Computer
based on size and Capability
• Notebook: - These computers are as powerful as desktop but size of
these computers are comparatively smaller than laptop and desktop.
They weigh 2 to 3 kg. They are more costly than laptop.
Classification digital Computer
based on size and Capability
Palmtop (Hand held): - They are also called as personal Digital Assistant
(PDA). These computers are small in size. They can be held in hands. It
is capable of doing word processing, spreadsheets and hand writing
recognition, game playing, faxing and paging. These computers are not
as powerful as desktop computers. Ex: - 3com palmV.
Classification digital Computer
based on size and Capability
• Wearable computer: - The size of this computer is very small so that it
can be worn on the body. It has smaller processing power. It is used in
the field of medicine.
For example pace maker to correct the heart beats. Insulin meter to
find the levels of insulin in the blood.
 Classification digital Computer
based on size and Capability
a) Workstations:- It is used in large, high-resolution graphics screen
built in network support, Engineering applications(CAD/CAM),
software development desktop publishing. Ex: Unix and windows
NT.
b) Minicomputer: - A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer. That
is more powerful than a microcomputer. These computers are
usually designed to serve multiple users simultaneously (Parallel
Processing). They are more expensive than microcomputers.
Examples: Digital Alpha, Sun Ultra.
Classification digital Computer
based on size and Capability
c) Mainframe (Enterprise) computers: - Computers with large storage
capacities and very high speed of processing (compared to mini- or
microcomputers) are known as mainframe computers. They support a
large number of terminals for simultaneous use by a number of users
like ATM transactions. They are also used as central host computers in
distributed data processing system. Examples: - IBM 370, S/390.
 Classification digital Computer
based on size and Capability
d) Supercomputer: Supercomputers have extremely
large storage capacity and computing speeds which
are many times faster than other computers. A
supercomputer is measured in terms of tens of
millions Instructions per second (mips), an operation
is made up of numerous instructions. The
supercomputer is mainly used for large scale
numerical problems in scientific and engineering
disciplines such as Weather analysis. Examples: -
IBM Deep Blue
Classification based on number of
microprocessors
Based on the number of microprocessors, computers can be classified
into a) Sequential computers and b) Parallel computers.
a) Sequential computers: - Any task complete in sequential computers is
with one microcomputer only. Most of the computers (today) we see
are sequential computers where in any task is completed sequentially
instruction after instruction from the beginning to the end.
b) Parallel computers: - The parallel computer is relatively fast. New
types of computers that use a large number of processors. The
processors perform different tasks independently and simultaneously
thus improving the speed of execution of complex programs
dramatically. Parallel computers match the speed of supercomputers
at a fraction of the cost.
Classification based on word-length
• A binary digit is called “BIT”. A word is a group of bits which is fixed
for a computer. The number of bits in a word (or word length)
determines the representation of all characters in these many bits.
Word length leis in the range from 16-bit to 64-bitsf or most
computers of today.
Classification based on number of
users
Based on number of users, computers are classified into: -
Single User: - Only one user can use the resource at any time.
Classification based on number of
users
Multi User: - A single computer shared by a number of users at any
time.
Classification based on number of
users
Network: - A number of interconnected autonomous computers shared
by a number of users at any time.
COMPUTER TYPES
• A computer can be defined as a fast electronic calculating machine
that accepts the (data) digitized input information process it as per
the list of internally stored instructions and produces the resulting
information. List of instructions are called programs & internal storage
is called computer memory.
• The different types of computers are
1. Personal computers: - This is the most common type found in
homes, schools, Business offices etc., It is the most common type of
desk top computers with processing and storage units along with
various input and output devices.
COMPUTER TYPES
2. Note book computers: - These are compact and portable versions of PC
3.
3.Work stations: - These have high resolution input/output (I/O) graphics
capability, but with same dimensions as that of desktop computer. These
are used in engineering applications of interactive design work.
4. Enterprise systems: - These are used for business data processing in
medium to large corporations that require much more computing power
and storage capacity than work stations. Internet associated with servers
have become a dominant worldwide source of all types of information.
5. Super computers: - These are used for large scale numerical calculations
required in the applications like weather forecasting etc.,
Computers has two kinds of
components:
• Hardware, consisting of its physical devices (CPU, memory, bus,
storage devices, ...)
• Software, consisting of the programs it has (Operating system,
applications, utilities, ...)
FUNCTIONAL UNIT
• A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts
input, memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), output and control unit.
FUNCTIONAL UNIT
Input device accepts the coded information as source program i.e. high
level language. This is either stored in the memory or immediately used
by the processor to perform the desired operations. The program
stored in the memory determines the processing steps. Basically the
computer converts one source program to an object program. i.e. into
machine language.
Finally the results are sent to the outside world through output device.
All of these actions are coordinated by the control unit.
Input unit:
• The source program/high level language program/coded
information/simply data is fed to a computer through input devices
keyboard is a most common type. Whenever a key is pressed, one
corresponding word or number is translated into its equivalent binary
code over a cable & fed either to memory or processor.
Joysticks, trackballs, mouse, scanners etc are other input devices.
Input unit:
Memory unit: - Its function into store programs and data. It is basically to two
types 1. Primary memory 2. Secondary memory.
Word: In computer architecture, a word is a unit of data of a defined bit
length that can be addressed and moved between storage and the computer
processor. Usually, the defined bit length of a word is equivalent to the width
of the computer's data bus so that a word can be moved in a single operation
from storage to a processor register. For any computer architecture with an
eight-bit byte, the word will be some multiple of eight bits. In IBM's
evolutionary System/360 architecture, a word is 32 bits, or four contiguous
eight-bit bytes. In Intel's PC processor architecture, a word is 16 bits, or two
contiguous eight-bit bytes. A word can contain a computer instruction, a
storage address, or application data that is to be manipulated (for example,
added to the data in another word space).
Input unit:
• The number of bits in each word is known as word length. Word
length refers to the number of bits processed by the CPU in one go.
With modern general purpose computers, word size can be 16 bits to
64 bits. The time required to access one word is called the memory
access time. The small, fast, RAM units are called caches. They are
tightly coupled with the processor and are often contained on the
same IC chip to achieve high performance.