Mathematical Induction

and Graph Coloring

International Journal of Mathematics Trends and Technology

Volume2 Issue2- 2011
A.A.I Perera and D.G.T.K. Samarasiri
1 2

Department of Mathematics, University of Peradeniya, Sri

Lanka
 Abstract
Graph coloring can be used to solve
problems in all disciplines. In our work, we
have used Mathematical Induction to solve
graph coloring problems. In this work, we
proved that, a map which is formed by some
finite number of line segments joining pairs
of points on different sides of a given
rectangle is 2-colorable.
 INTRODUCTION
Mathematical induction is a method of
mathematical proof typically used to establish
that a given statement is true for all natural
numbers. It is done by proving that the first
statement in the infinite sequence of statements
is true, and then proving that if any one
statement in the infinite sequence of statements
is true, then so is the next one. Then by
mathematical Induction the given statement is
true for all natural numbers. A graph is a
basically a collection of dots with some pairs of
dots being connected by lines. The dots are
called vertices and the lines are called edges.
More formally, a graph G = (V,E)
consists of two sets. The set of vertices
denoted by V and the set of edges denoted
by E . The degree of a vertex of a graph is
the number of edges adjacent to that vertex.
In Figure 1 which is formed by some finite
number of line segments joining points on
different sides of a given rectangle is 2-
colorable. A map which is formed by some
finite number of line segments joining pairs
of points on different sides of a rectangle in
Figure 1.
 F-

Figure 1- A map
FIGURE 1 2-COLORABLE
 METHODOLOGY
Graph Coloring
Perhaps the least obvious application of direct graph
theory comes in the form of coloring maps. On any
map it is most often the case that any two adjacent
regions are colored with a different color so as to
help distinguish their geographical features. It turns
out that the dual to this problem is to assign a color
to each vertex of a simple graph such that no two
adjacent vertices share the same color. The chromatic
number of a graph is the least number of colors
needed to ensure that the vertices can be colored with
the above property.
 Three Types of Graph
Coloring
1. Vertex coloring
2. Edge coloring
3. Face coloring
 Vertex Coloring
In the most common kind of graph coloring,
colors are assigned to the vertices. In, graph
theory, graph coloring is a special case of
graph labeling; it is an assignment of labels
traditionally called "colors" to elements of a
graph subject to certain constraints. In its
simplest form, it is a way of coloring the
vertices of a graph such that no two adjacent
vertices share the same color; this is called a
vertex coloring.
 Chromatic Number
The least number of colors needed to
color a graph G is called its chromatic
number, χ (G) . If G is a graph without
loops, then G is k colorable if we assign
one of k colors to each vertex so that
adjacent vertices have different colors. If
G is k - colorable but not (k -1) - colorable,
we say that G is k -chromatic, or that the
chromatic number of G is k , and Write
χ(G) = .
 Edge Coloring
An edge coloring assigns a color to each
edge so that no two adjacent edges share
the same color. A graph G is k -colorable
(or k -edge colorable) if its edges can be
colored with k colors so that no two
adjacent edges have the same color.
Face Coloring
Face coloring of a planar graph assigns a color
to each face or region so that no two faces that
share a common boundary have the same color.

-If uncolored vertices remain, assign color 3 to the

uncolored vertex with next highest degree and other
uncolored, unconnected vertices.
-Proceed in this manner until all vertices are colored.
 Map Coloring
Given a map with various regions in it, we wish
to color the regions so that no two regions with
a common boundary (consisting of more than
onepoint) having the same color. This map
coloring problem can be restated in terms of
graphs by using point-care duality. That is, each
region of the map is a vertex of a graph and two
vertices are joined by an edge if and only if the
corresponding regions have a common
boundary. Coloring the map is then equivalent
to finding a proper vertex coloring of this graph.
The graph that arises in this way is a planar
graph.
 A Graph Coloring Algorithm
1. Assign color 1 to the vertex with highest
degree.
2. Also assign color 1 to any vertex that is not connected
to this vertex.
3. Assign color 2 to the vertex with the next highest
degree that is not already colored.
4. Also assign color 2 to any vertex not connected to this
vertex and that is not already colored.
5. If uncolored vertices remain, assign color 3 to the
uncolored vertex with next highest degree and other
uncolored, unconnected vertices.
6. Proceed in this manner until all vertices are colored
 Four Color Theorem

Every planar graph is four

colorable.
 A Graph Coloring Algorithm
(Example of four color Theorem
A graph is said to be n-colorable if it's possible
to assign one of n colors to each vertex in such
a way that no two connected vertices have the
same color. Obviously the above graph is not 3-
colorable, but it is 4-colorable. The Four Color
Theorem asserts that every planar graph - and
therefore every "map" on the plane or sphere –
no matter how large or complex, is 4-colorable.
 Mathematical Induction
The simplest and most common form of
mathematical induction proves that a statement
involving a natural number n holds for all values
of n. The proof consists of two steps:
1. The initial step: showing that the
statement holds when n = 0 or n = 1.
2. The inductive step: assuming that if the
statement holds for some n, then prove
that the statement holds when n + 1.
 Coloring as a
Mathematical Induction
Problem.
Consider plane maps, formed by some finite
number of line segments joining points on
different sides (or opposite corners) of a given
rectangle, see Figure 1. Mathematical Induction
can be used to show that this is 2-colorable.
 RESULTS
We will use mathematical induction on the
number of line segments n . When n = 1;
Only one line segment given by Figure 4, and
the result is very clear. Then the map is 2-
colorable.
Fig 4 -with one line segment
Figure 5. Here following two cases are possible.
Case 1: Two lines do not intersect each other.
Then the map is 2-colorable.
Case 2: Two lines intersect each other.
When n=3.Three line segments. The following
five cases are possible. Given by Figure 8,
Figure 9, Figure 10, Figure 11 and Figure 12.
Consider the sub graph, which is the cycle
a b c d a . It is an even cycle. So we can assign two colors that alternate around the cycle. It is
observed that there are no connection between the vertices a,d , and e. So we can assign the same
color to the vertex e as in a and d. Therefore the graph is 2-colorable.
.
Fig. 11 –coloring of Figure 10 Case 3:
Case 3: Two lines intersect the other line at two
distinct points.
Degree of vertices U and V are equal to four.
Considering the regions around U and V

Fig. 12 – two lines intersect the other line at two distinct points
Case 4: Each distinct pair of lines intersect at a

different point
Case 4: Each distinct pair of lines intersect at a
different point
Fig. 14 - each distinct pair of lines intersect at a different point.
Each U, V,W is of degree four.
The corresponding graph and its
coloring is
Case 5: Three lines intersect at a
single point.
Degree of V is six. The resulting graph is a cyclic graph of even
number of vertices. So we can assign two vertex colors that
alternate around the cycle. Therefore the corresponding graph is 2-
colorable.
According to the above five situations it can be shown
that two colors are sufficient to color the rectangle
when it has three lines. When three lines are intersect
the degree of vertices inside the rectangle are always
of even degree. Therefore the graph is always 2-
colorable. Assume that the assertion is true for n = p
Once p lines are drawn by joining different points on
the rectangle then the corresponding graph is 2-
colorable. Note that degree of each new vertex (if
exists) is even. Now draw the p +1th line.
Consider the following two cases.
Case 1: Assume that the new line intersects some
of the vertices already in the rectangle.

Let m be the degree of such vertex. After drawing

the new line segment, degree of that vertex will be
increased by 2, i.e. degree is m + 2 . Since m is an
even number m +2 is also an even number. So by
considering that vertex we can draw an even cycle
graph. It is always 2-colorable. So as previous by
considering all the vertices inside the rectangle we
can draw the corresponding graph and it is 2-
colorable.
Case 2: Assume that the new line does not intersect anyone
of the lines which are already in the rectangle. Then as we have shown
earlier it is always 2-colorable.
Fig. 19 –coloring when the new line does not intersect anyone
of the lines
So, if the graph is two colorable for p lines then it is also two
colorable for p +1 lines. So by mathematical induction the
given map is 2- colorable.
 CONCLUSION
In this work, we have used Mathematical Induction to
prove that a map formed by intersection of finite
number of lines joining different points on a rectangle
is 2-colorable. Also, degree of each new vertex (if
exists) is even.
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