Introduction to SQL

SQL Overview

Structured Query Language The standard for relational database management systems (RDBMS) RDBMS: A database management system that manages data as a collection of tables in which all relationships are represented by common values in related tables

History of SQL

1970E. Codd develops relational database concept 1974-1979System R with Sequel (later SQL) created at IBM Research Lab 1979Oracle markets first relational DB with SQL 1986ANSI SQL standard released 1989, 1992, 1999, 2003Major ANSI standard updates CurrentSQL is supported by most major database vendors
3

Purpose of SQL Standard

Specify syntax/semantics for data definition and manipulation Define data structures Enable portability Specify minimal (level 1) and complete (level 2) standards Allow for later growth/enhancement to standard

Benefits of a Standardized Relational Language

Reduced training costs Productivity Application portability Application longevity Reduced dependence on a single vendor Cross-system communication

Catalog

SQL Environment

A set of schemas that constitute the description of a database The structure that contains descriptions of objects created by a user (base tables, views, constraints)

Schema

Data Definition Language (DDL)

Commands that define a database, including creating, altering, and dropping tables and establishing constraints
Commands that maintain and query a database Commands that control a database, including administering privileges and committing data
6

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Data Control Language (DCL)

Figure 7-1 A simplified schematic of a typical SQL environment, as described by the SQL-2003 standard

Some SQL Data types

Figure 7-4 DDL, DML, DCL, and the database development process

SQL Database Definition

Data Definition Language (DDL) Major CREATE statements: CREATE SCHEMAdefines a portion of the database owned by a particular user CREATE TABLEdefines a table and its columns CREATE VIEWdefines a logical table from one or more views

10

DDL

CREATE-CREATE OBJECTS IN DATABASE ALTER-ALTER STRUCTURE OF DATABASE DROP-DELETE OBJECTS FROM THE DATABASE INCLUDING RECORDS TRUNCATE-REMOVE ALL RECORDS FROM A TABLE GRANT-ACCESS PRIVILEGES TO DATABASE
11

DML

INSERT-INSERT DATA INTO A TABLE UPDATE-UPDATE EXISTING RECORDS DELETE ALL RECORDS DELETE-DELETE ALL RECORDS LOCK-TABLE CONTROL CONCURRENCY

12

DCL

COMMIT-SAVE WORK DONE SAVEPOINT-IDENTIFY A POINT IN A TRANSACTION TO WHICH YOU CAN LATER ROLL BACK ROLLBACK-RESTORE DATABASE ORIGINAL SINCE LAST COMMIT GRANT/REVOKE-GRANT OR TAKE BACK PERMISSION TO OR FROM THE ORACLE USER
13

DATA CONSTRAINTS

I/O CONSTRAINT UNIQUE KEY CONSTRAINT BUSINESS RULE CONTRAINTS

14

I/O CONTRAINTS
Primary Key Constraint Example Create table student( rollno varchar2(8) primary key ..);

15

Foreign key constraint

Foreign key represents relationship between tables Examlpe Foreign key (column_name) references table-name(column_name)

Foreign key custo_no references cost_master(custo_no)

16

Business rule constraints

Null value constraints Example Create table student(.. dob date not null,);

17

Check constraints
Business rule validation can be applied to a table column by using check constraint Example Check(logical expression) Check(Cust_no like c%) Check(sellprice > 0) Check(fname=upper(fname))

18

Table Creation
Figure 7-5 General syntax for CREATE TABLE

Steps in table creation:

1. Identify data types for attributes 2. Identify columns that can and cannot be null 3. Identify columns that must be unique (candidate keys) 4. Identify primary key foreign key mates 5. Determine default values 6. Identify constraints on columns (domain specifications) 7. Create the table and associated indexes
19

The following slides create tables for this enterprise data model

20

Figure 7-6 SQL database definition commands for Pine Valley Furniture
Overall table definitions

21

Defining attributes and their data types

22

Non-nullable specification

Identifying primary key

Primary keys can never have NULL values

23

Non-nullable specifications

Primary key

Some primary keys are composite composed of multiple attributes

24

Controlling the values in attributes

Default value

Domain constraint

25

Identifying foreign keys and establishing relationships

Primary key of parent table

Foreign key of dependent table

26

Data Integrity Controls

Referential integrityconstraint that ensures that foreign key values of a table must match primary key values of a related table in 1:M relationships Restricting:

Deletes of primary records Updates of primary records Inserts of dependent records

27

Changing and Removing Tables

ALTER TABLE statement allows you to change column specifications:

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMER_T ADD (TYPE VARCHAR(2))

DROP TABLE statement allows you to remove tables from your schema:

DROP TABLE CUSTOMER_T

28

Insert Statement

Adds data to a table Inserting into a table

INSERT INTO CUSTOMER_T VALUES (001, Contemporary Casuals, 1355 S. Himes Blvd., Gainesville, FL, 32601);

Inserting a record that has some null attributes requires identifying the fields that actually get data

INSERT INTO PRODUCT_T (PRODUCT_ID, PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION,PRODUCT_FINISH, STANDARD_PRICE, PRODUCT_ON_HAND) VALUES (1, End Table, Cherry, 175, 8); INSERT INTO CA_CUSTOMER_T SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER_T WHERE STATE = CA;

Inserting from another table

29

Creating Tables with Identity Columns

New with SQL:2003

Inserting into a table does not require explicit customer ID entry or field list INSERT INTO CUSTOMER_T VALUES ( Contemporary Casuals, 1355 S. Himes Blvd., Gainesville, FL, 32601);
30

Delete Statement

Removes rows from a table Delete certain rows

DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T WHERE STATE = HI; DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T;

Delete all rows

31

Update Statement

Modifies data in existing rows

UPDATE PRODUCT_T SET UNIT_PRICE = 775 WHERE PRODUCT_ID = 7;

32

SELECT Statement

Used for queries on single or multiple tables Clauses of the SELECT statement:

SELECT

List the columns (and expressions) that should be returned from the query Indicate the table(s) or view(s) from which data will be obtained Indicate the conditions under which a row will be included in the result Indicate categorization of results Indicate the conditions under which a category (group) will be included Sorts the result according to specified criteria
33

FROM

WHERE

GROUP BY

HAVING

ORDER BY

Figure 7-10 SQL statement processing order (adapted from van der Lans, p.100)

34

SELECT Example

Find products with standard price less than Rs 275

SELECT PRODUCT_NAME, STANDARD_PRICE FROM PRODUCT_V WHERE STANDARD_PRICE < 275;

Table 7-3: Comparison Operators in SQL

35

SELECT Example Using Alias

Alias is an alternative column or table name

SELECT CUST.CUSTOMER AS NAME, CUST.CUSTOMER_ADDRESS FROM CUSTOMER_V CUST WHERE NAME = Home Furnishings;

36

SELECT Example Using a Function

Using the COUNT aggregate function to find totals

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM ORDER_LINE_V WHERE ORDER_ID = 1004; Note: with aggregate functions you cant have single-valued columns included in the SELECT clause
37

SELECT ExampleBoolean Operators

AND, OR, and NOT Operators for customizing conditions in WHERE clause
SELECT PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION, PRODUCT_FINISH, STANDARD_PRICE FROM PRODUCT_V WHERE (PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION LIKE %Desk OR PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION LIKE %Table) AND UNIT_PRICE > 300;

Note: the LIKE operator allows you to compare strings using wildcards. For example, the % wildcard in %Desk indicates that all strings that have any number of characters preceding the word Desk will be allowed
38

Venn Diagram from Previous Query

39

Sorting Results with the ORDER BY Clause

SELECT Example

Sort the results first by STATE, and within a state by CUSTOMER_NAME

SELECT CUSTOMER_NAME, CITY, STATE FROM CUSTOMER_V WHERE STATE IN (FL, TX, CA, HI) ORDER BY STATE, CUSTOMER_NAME;
Note: the IN operator in this example allows you to include rows whose STATE value is either FL, TX, CA, or HI. It is more efficient than separate OR conditions
40

Categorizing Results Using the GROUP BY Clause

SELECT Example

For use with aggregate functions

Scalar aggregate: single value returned from SQL query with

aggregate function

Vector aggregate: multiple values returned from SQL query

with aggregate function (via GROUP BY)

SELECT CUSTOMER_STATE, COUNT(CUSTOMER_STATE) FROM CUSTOMER_V GROUP BY CUSTOMER_STATE;

Note: you can use single-value fields with aggregate functions if they are included in the GROUP BY clause
41

Qualifying Results by Categories Using the HAVING Clause

SELECT Example

For use with GROUP BY

SELECT CUSTOMER_STATE, COUNT(CUSTOMER_STATE) FROM CUSTOMER_V GROUP BY CUSTOMER_STATE HAVING COUNT(CUSTOMER_STATE) > 1;
Like a WHERE clause, but it operates on groups (categories), not on individual rows. Here, only those groups with total numbers greater than 1 will be included in final result
42

Using and Defining Views

Views provide users controlled access to tables Base Tabletable containing the raw data Dynamic View

A virtual table created dynamically upon request by a user No data actually stored; instead data from base table made available to user Based on SQL SELECT statement on base tables or other views Copy or replication of data Data actually stored Must be refreshed periodically to match the corresponding base tables
43

Materialized View

Sample CREATE VIEW

CREATE VIEW EXPENSIVE_STUFF_V AS SELECT PRODUCT_ID, PRODUCT_NAME, UNIT_PRICE FROM PRODUCT_T WHERE UNIT_PRICE >300 WITH CHECK_OPTION;

View has a name View is based on a SELECT statement CHECK_OPTION works only for
updateable views and prevents updates that would create rows not included in the view
44

Advantages of Views

Simplify query commands Assist with data security (but don't rely on views for security, there are more important security measures) Enhance programming productivity Contain most current base table data Use little storage space Provide customized view for user Establish physical data independence

45

Disadvantages of Views

Use processing time each time view is referenced May or may not be directly updateable

46