Chapter 1

SDMA(SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLE

ACCESS)
1.1 Introduction
Space division multiple access (SDMA) controls the radiated energy for
each user in space. It can be seen from Figure that SDMA serves different
users by using spot beam antennas. These different areas covered by the
antenna beam may be served by the same frequency (in a TDMA or CDMA
systern) or different frequencies (in an FDMA system). Sectorized antennas may
be thought of as a primitive application of SDMA. In the future, adaptive
antennas will likely be used to simultaneously steer energy in the direction of
many users at once and appear to be best suited for TDMA and CDMA base
station architectures
A spatially filtered Base Station Antenna serving various MS using spot
beams

The reverse link presents the most difficulty in cellular systems for several
reasons . First, the base station has complete control over the power of
all the transmitted signals on the forward link. However, because of
radio propagation paths between each user and the base station, the transmitted
power from each subscriber unit must be dynamically controlled to prevent any
single user from driving up the interference level for all other users. Second,
transmit power is limited by battery consumption at the subscriber unit,
therefore
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there are limits on the degree to which power may be controlled on the
reverse link. If the base station antenna is made to spatially filter each desired
user so that more energy is detected from each subscriber, then the reverse link
for each user is improved and less power is required.
Adaptive antennas used at the base station (and eventually at the subscriber
units) promise to mitigate some of the problems on the reverse link. In
the limiting case of infinitesimal beamwidth and infinitely fast tracking ability,
adaptive antennas implement optimal SDMA, thereby providing a unique
channel that is free from the interference of all other users in the cell. With
SDMA, all users within the system would be able to communicate at the same
time using the same channel. In addition, a perfect adaptive antenna system
would be able to track individual multipath components for each user and
combine them in an optimal manner to collect all of the available signal energy
from each user.
The perfect adaptive antenna system is not feasible since it requires infinitely
large antennas.

1.2 ADVANTAGES OF SDMA

DMA increases the capacity of the system and transmission quality by focusing
the signal into narrow transmission beams. Through the use of smart antennas
with beams pointed at the direction of the mobile station, SDMA serves
different users within the same region.
Mobile stations operating outside the bounds of these directed beams experience
a near zero interference from other mobile stations operating under the same
base station with the same radio frequency.
Since the beams are focused, the radio energy frequency can have increased
base station range. This attribute of SDMA allows base stations to have larger
radio coverage with less radiated energy.
Under traditional mobile phone network systems, the base station radiates radio
signals in all directions within the cell without knowledge of the location of the
mobile station. SDMA technology channels radio signals based on the location
of the mobile station.
The main advantage of SDMA is frequency reuse. Provided the reuse distance is
preserved in the network architecture, interference can be near zero, even if
mobile stations use the same allocated frequencies.
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CHAPTER 2
PACKET RADIO

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In packet radio (PR) access techniques, many subscribers attempt to access

a single channel in an uncoordinated (or minimally coordinated) manner.
Transmission is done by using bursts of data. Collisions from the simultaneous
transmissionsof multiple transmitters are detected at the base station receiver, in
which case an ACK or NACK signal is broadcast by the base station to alert the
desired user (and all other users) of received transmission. The ACK signal
indicates an acknowledgment of a received burst from a particular user by the
base station, and a NACK (negative acknowledgment) indicates that the
previous burst was not received correctly by the base station. By using ACK and
NACK signals, a PR system employs perfect feedback, even though traffic
delay due to collisions may be high.
Packet radio multiple access is very easy to implement but has low spectral
density and may induce delays. The subscribers use a contention technique to
transmit on a common channel. ALOHA protocols, developed foY early satellite
systems, are the best examples of contention techniques. ALOHA allows each
subscriber to transmit whenever they have data to send, The transmitting
subscribers listen to the acknowledgment feedback to determine if transmission
has been successful or not. If a collision occurs, the subscriber waits a random
amount of time, and then retransmits the packet. The advantage of packet
contention techniques is the ability to serve a large number of subscribers with
virtually no overhead. The performance of contention techniques can be
evaluated by the throughput (T), which is defined as the average number of
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messages successfully transmitted per unit time, and the average deky (D)
experienced by a typical message burst.

2.2 PROTOCOLS
2.1.1 PURE ALOHA
The pure ALOHA protocol is a random access protocol used for data transfer.
A user accesses a channel as soon as a message is ready to be transmitted.
After a transmission, the user waits for an acknowledgment on either the same
channel or a separate feedback channel. In case of collisions, (i.e., when a
NACK
is received), the terminal waits for a random period of time and retransmits the
message. As the number of users increase, a greater delay occurs because the
probability of collision increases.
For the ALOHA protocol, the vulnerable period is double the packet duration at
n=0
One may evaluate the mean of equation (8.10) to determine the average
number of packets sent during 2t (This is useful in determining the average
offered traffic). The probability of no collision is Pr (0) = The throughput
of the ALOHA protocol is found by using Equation as
T = Re^r

2.1.2 SLOTTED ALOHA

In slotted ALOHA, time is divided into equal time slots of length greater
than the packet duration t. The subscribers each have synchronized clocks and
transmit a message only at the beginning of a new time slot, thus resulting in a
discrete distribution of packets. This prevents partial collisions, where one
packet collides with a portion of another As the number of users increase, a
greater delay will occur due to complete collisions and the resulting repeated
transmissions of those packets originally lost. The number of slots which a
transmitter
waits prior to retransmitting also determines the delay characteristics of

the traffic. The vulnerable period for slotted ALOHA is only one packet
duration,
since partial collisions are prevented through synchronization. The probability
that no other packets will be generated during the vulnerable period is The
throughput for the case of slotted ALOHA is thus given by
T = Re^r
throughput for delays.

2.1.3
CARRIER
SENSE
ACCESS(CSMA) PROTOCOLS

MULTIPLE

ALOHA protocols do not listen to the channel before transmission, and

therefore do not exploit information about the other users. By listening to the
channel before engaging in transmission, greater efficiencies may be achieved.
CSMA protocols are based on the fact that each terminal on the network is able
to monitor the status of the channel before transmitting information. If the chan
nel is idle (i.e., no carrier is detected), then the user is allowed to transmit a
packet based on a particular algorithm which is common to all transmitters on
the network.
In CSMA protocols, detection delay and propagation delay are two important
parameters. Detection delay is a function of the receiver hardware and is
the time required for a terminal to sense whether or not the channel is idle.
Propagation delay is a relative measure of how fast it takes for a packet to travel
from a base station to a mobile terminal. With a small detection time, a terminal
detects a free channel quite rapidly, and small propagation delay means that a
packet is transmitted through the channel in a small interval of time relative to
the packet duration.
Propagation delay is important, since just after a user begins sending a
packet, another user may be ready to send and may be sensing the channel at
the same time. If the transmitting packet has not reached the user who is poised
to send, the latter user will sense an idle channel and will also send its packet,
resulting in a collision between the two packets. Propagation delay impacts the
performance of CSMA protocols. If is the propagation time in secqnds, Rb is
the channel bit rate, and m is the expected number of bits in a data packet then
the propagation delay td (in packet transmission units)
can be expressed as
td =tpR/m
There exist several variations of the CSMA strategy:
1-persistent CSMA The terminal listens to the channel and waits for
transmission until it finds the channel idle. As soon as the channel is idle,
the terminal transmits its message with probability one.

 non-persistent .CSMA In this type of CSMA stratea after receiving a

negative acknowledgment the terminal waits a random time before
retransmission
of the packet. This is popular for wireless LAN applications, where
the packet transmission interval is much greater than the propagation delay
to the farthermost user.
p-persistent CSMA p-persistent CSMA is applied to slotted channels.
When a channel is found to be idle, the packet is transmitted in the first
available slot with probabilityp or in the next slot with probability i-p.
[Link] In CSMA with collision detection (CD), a user monitors its
transmission for collisions. If two or more terminals start a transmission at
the same time, collision is detected, and the transmission is immediately
aborted in midstream. This is handled by a user having both a transmitter
and receiver which is able to support listen-while-talk operation. For a single
radio channel, this is done by interrupting the transmission in order to sense
the channel. For duplex systems, a full duplex transceiver is used.
Data sense multiple access (DSMA) DSMA is a special type of CSMA
that relies on successfully demodulating a forward control channel before
broadcasting data back on a reverse channel. Each user attempts to detect a
busy-idle message which is interspersed on the forward control channel.
When the busy-idle message indicates that no users are transmitting on the
reverse channel, a user is free to send a packet.

2.1.4 RESERVATION PROTOCOLS

Reservation ALOHA is a packet access scheme based on time division

multiplexing.
In this protocol, certain packet slots are assigned with priority, and it
is possible for users to reserve slots for the transmission of packets. Slots can be
permanently reserved or can be reserved on request. For high traffic conditions,
reservations on request offers better throughput. In one type of reservation
ALOHA, the terminal making a successful transmission reserves a slot
permanently until its transmission is complete, although very large duration
transmissions may be interrupted. Another scheme allows a user to transmit a
request on a subslot which is reserved in each frame. If the transmission is
successful (i.e, no collisions are detected), the terminal is allocated the next
regular slot in the frame for data transmission.
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Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA)

PRMA uses a discrete packet time technique similar to reservation ALOHA
and combines the cyclical frame structure of TDMA in a manner that allows
each
TDMA time slot to carry either voice or data, where voice is given priority.
PRMA was proposed in as a means of integrating bursty data and human
speech. PRMA defines a frame structure, much like is used in TDMA systems.
Within each frame, there are a fixed number of time slots which may be
designated
as either "itserved" or "available", depending on the traffic as determined
by the controlling base station.

2.3 CAPTURE EFFECT

Packet radio multiple access techniques are based on contention within a
channel. When used with FM or spread spectrum modulation, it is possible for
the strongest user to successfully capture the intended receiver, even when many
other users are also transmitting. Often, the closest transmitter is able to capture
a receiver because of the small propagation path loss. This is called the near-tbr
effect. The capture effect offers both advantages and disadvantages in
practical systems. Because a particular transmitter may capture an intended
receiver, many packets may survive despite collision on the channel. However,
a
strong transmitter may make it impossible for the receiver to detect a much
weaker transmitter which is attempting to communicate to the same receiver.
This problem is known as the hidden transmitter problem.
A useful parameter in analyzing the capture effects in packet radio protocols
is the minimum power ratio of an arriving packet, relative to the other colliding
packets, such that it is received. This ratio is called the capture ratio, and
is dependent upon the receiver and the modulation used.
In summary, packet radio techniques support mobile transmitters sending
bursty traffic in the form of data packets using random access. Ideal channel
throughput can be increased if terminals synchronize their packet transmissions
into common time slots, such that the risk of partial packet overlap is avoided.
With high traffic loads, both unslotted and slotted ALOHA protocols become
inefficient,
since the contention between all transmitted packets exposes most of the
offered traffic to collisions, and thus results ih multiple retransmissions and
increased delays. To reduce this situation CSMA can be used where the
transmitter
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first listens either to the common radio channel or to a separate dedicated

acknowledgment control channel from the base station. In a real world mobile
system, the CSMA protocols may fail to detect ongoing radio transmissions of
packets subject to deep fading on the reverse channel path. Utilization of an
ALOHA channel can be improved by deliberately introducing differences
between the transmit powers of multiple users competing for the base station.

CHAPTER 3
CAPACITY OF CELLULAR SYSTEMS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Channel capacity for a radio system can be defined as the maximum number
of channels or users that can be provided in a fixed frequency band. Radio
capacity is a parameter which measures spectrum efficiency of a wireless
system.
This parameter is determined by the required carrier-to-interference ratio
(C/I) and the channel bandwidth B In a cellular system the interference at a base
station receiver will come from the subscriber units in the surrounding cells.
This is called reverse channel
interference. For a particular subscriber unit, the desired base station will
provide
the desired forward channel while the surrounding co-channel base stations
will provide the forward channel interference. Considering the forward channel
interference problem, let D be the distance between two co-channel cells and R
be the cell radius. Then the minimum ratio of D/R that is required to provide a
tolerable level of co-channel interference is called the co-channel reuse ratio
and
is given by
Q=D/R
The radio propagation characteristics determine the carrier-to-interference
ratio (C /1) at a given location.

3.2 CAPACITY OF DIGITAL CELLULAR

TDMA
In practice, TDMA systems improve capacity by a factor of 3 to 6 times as
compared to analog cellular radio systems. Powerful error control and speech
coding enable better link performance in high interference environments. By
exploiting speech activity, some TDMA systems are able to better utilize each
radio channel. Mobile assisted handoff (MAHO) allows subscribers to monitor
the neighboring base stations, and the best base station choice may be made by
each subscriber. MAHO allows the deployment of densely packed microcells,
thus giving substantial capacity gains in a system. TDMA also makes it possible
to introduce adaptive channel allocation (ACA). ACA eliminates system
planning since it is not required to plan frequencies for cells. Various proposed
standards such as the GSM, U.S digital cellular (USDC), and Pacific Digital
Cellular (PDC) have adopted digital TDMA for high capacity.

3.3 CAPACITY OF CELLULAR CDMA

The capacity of CDMA systems is interference limited, while it is bandwidth
limited in FDMA and TDMA. Therefore, any reduction in the interference
will cause a linear increase in the capacity of CDMA. Put another way, in a
CDMA system, the link performance for each user increases as the number of
users decreases. A straightforward way to reduce interference is to use
multisectorized
antennas, which results in spatial isolation of users. The directional
antennas receive signals from only a fraction of the current users, thus leading
to the reduction of interference. Another way of increasing CDMA capacity is to
operate in a discontinuous transmission mode (DTX), where advantage is taken
of the intermittent nature of speech. In DTX, the transmitter is turned off during
the periods of silence in speech. It has been observed that voice signals have a
duty factor of about 3/8 in landline networks [Bra68], and 1/2 for mobile
systems,
where background noise and vibration can trigger voice activity detectors. Thus,
the average capacity of a CDMA system can be increased by a factor inversely
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proportional to the duty factor. While TDMA and FDMA reuse frequencies
depending on the isolation between cells provided by the path loss in terrestrial
radio propagation, CDMA can reuse the entire spectrum for all cells, and this
results in an increase of capacity by a large percentage over the normal
frequency
reuse factor.
For evaluating the capacity of CDMA system, first consider a single cell system
. The cellular network consists of a large number of mobile users
communicating
with a base station (In a multiple cell system, all the base stations
are interconnected by the mobile switching center). The cell-site transmitter
consists
of a linear combiner which adds the spread signals of the inthvidual users
and also uses a weighting factor for each signal for forward link power control
purposes. For a single cell system under consideration, these weighting factors
can be assumed to be equal. A pilot signal is also included in the cell-site
transmitter
and is used by each mobile to set its own power control for the reverse
link. For a single-cell system with power control, all the signals on the reverse
channel are received at the same power level at the base station.
Let the number of users be N. Then, each demodulator at the cell site
receives a composite waveform containing the desired signal of power S and
(N I) interfering users, each of which has power, S. Thus, the signal-to-noise
ratio is
SNR
= (N-I)S = (N- I)
In addition to SNR, bit energy-to-noise ratio is an important parameter in
communication systems. It is obtained by dividing the signal power by the
baseband
information bit rate, R, and the interference power by the total RF bandwidth,
W. The SNR at the base station receiver can be represented in terms of
E5/N0 given by
E,, - S/R - W/R N0 - (N-I)(S/W) - N-1
Equation does not take into account the background thermal noise,
in the spread bandwidth.

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3.4 CAPACITY OF CDMA WITH MULTIPLE

CELLS
In actual COMA cellular systems that employ separate forward and reverse
links, neighboring cells share the same frequency, and each base station controls
the transmit power of each of its own in-cell users. However, a particular base
station is unable to control the power of users in neighboring cells, and these
users add to the noise floor and decrease capacity on the reverse link of the
particular cell of interest. The transmit powers of each out-of-cell user will add
to the in-cell interference (where users are under
power control) at the base station receiver. The amount of out-of-cell
interferencedetermines the frequency reuse factor, f, of a CDMA cellular
system. Ideally,
each cell shares the same frequency and the maximum possible value of f
Cf = 1) is achieved. In practice, however, the out-of-cell interference reduces f
significantly.

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REFERENCES

Wireless Communications: Principles

and Practice by Theodore S. Rappaport
Cellular Mobile Communication By
Gottapu Sasibhushana Rao
[Link]
[Link]
b/

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