UNIT 1 : CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
FARADAY'S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS
1. Faradays first law
According to this law, The amount of substance liberated at an electrode is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity
passed.
or,
Where W or M = amount of substance liberated in gram.
Q = quantity of electricity passed in coulomb.
Since Q = I.t
Where I = Current in ampere
and t = time in seconds
Hence
where Z = proportionality constant, called electrochemical equivalent.
2.
Faradays second law: According to this law, if same quantity of electricity is passed through different electrolytes,
then the amount of substances liberated at the respective of electrodes are in the ratio of their equivalent masses.
Suppose three cells containing HCI,
solutions are connected in series. If same quantity of electricity is
passed through these cells, then the amount of hydrogen, silver and copper deposited at the respective cathodes is in the ratio
of their equivalent mass.
Hence,
IONIC VELOCITIES AND MOBILITIES
CALCULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF IONIC MOBILITIES
TRANSPORT NUMBER.
THERMOELECTRICITY
PELTIER EFFECT
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF PELTIER COEFFICIENT
THOMSON COEFFICIENT
The amount of heat energy absorbed or evolved when one ampere current flows for one second (one coulomb) in a metal
between two points which differ in temperature by 1oC is called Thomson coefficient. It is denoted by . Its unit is volt per
oC.
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THOMSON COEFFICIENT
APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS TO A THERMOCOUPLE AND CONNECTED RELATIONS
THERMOELECTRIC DIAGRAM AND USES.
UNIT 2 : DC AND AC CIRCUITS
DC CIRCUITS :GROWTH AND DECAY OF CURRENT IN A CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE AND
INDUCTANCE
GROWTH AND DECAY OF CHARGE IN A CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE AND CAPACITOR
GROWTH AND DECAY OF CHARGE IN AN LCR CIRCUIT
CONDITION FOR THE DISCHARGE TO BE OSCILLATORY
FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION - NETWORK ANALYSIS
THEVENIN AND NORTON'S THEOREMS.
Thevenins Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter how complex, to an
equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and series resistance connected to a load. The
qualification of linear is identical to that found in the Superposition Theorem, where all the underlying
equations must be linear (no exponents or roots). If were dealing with passive components (such as
resistors, and later, inductors and capacitors), this is true. However, there are some components
(especially certain gas-discharge and semiconductor components) which are nonlinear: that is, their
opposition to current changes with voltage and/or current. As such, we would call circuits containing
these types of components, nonlinear circuits.
Thevenins Theorem is especially useful in analyzing power systems and other circuits where one
particular resistor in the circuit (called the load resistor) is subject to change, and re-calculation of the
circuit is necessary with each trial value of load resistance, to determine voltage across it and current
through it. Lets take another look at our example circuit:
Lets suppose that we decide to designate R2 as the load resistor in this circuit. We already have four
methods of analysis at our disposal (Branch Current, Mesh Current, Millmans Theorem, and
Superposition Theorem) to use in determining voltage across R2 and current through R2, but each of these
methods are time-consuming. Imagine repeating any of these methods over and over again to find what
would happen if the load resistance changed (changing load resistance is very common in power
systems, as multiple loads get switched on and off as needed. the total resistance of their parallel
connections changing depending on how many are connected at a time). This could potentially involve
a lot of work!
Thevenins Theorem makes this easy by temporarily removing the load resistance from the original
circuit and reducing whats left to an equivalent circuit composed of a single voltage source and series
resistance. The load resistance can then be re-connected to this Thevenin equivalent circuit and
calculations carried out as if the whole network were nothing but a simple series circuit:
The Thevenin Equivalent Circuit is the electrical equivalent of B1, R1, R3, and B2 as seen from the two
points where our load resistor (R2) connects.
The Thevenin equivalent circuit, if correctly derived, will behave exactly the same as the original circuit
formed by B1, R1, R3, and B2. In other words, the load resistor (R2) voltage and current should be exactly
the same for the same value of load resistance in the two circuits. The load resistor R 2 cannot tell the
difference between the original network of B1, R1, R3, and B2, and the Thevenin equivalent circuit of
EThevenin, and RThevenin, provided that the values for EThevenin and RThevenin have been calculated correctly.
The advantage in performing the Thevenin conversion to the simpler circuit, of course, is that it makes
load voltage and load current so much easier to solve than in the original network. Calculating the
equivalent Thevenin source voltage and series resistance is actually quite easy. First, the chosen load
resistor is removed from the original circuit, replaced with a break (open circuit):
NORTON THEOREM
This article is about the theorem in electrical circuits. For Norton's theorem for queueing networks, see flow-equivalent server method.
Any black box containing resistances only and voltage and current sources can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of an equivalent current
source in parallel connection with an equivalent resistance.
Edward Lawry Norton
Known in Europe as the MayerNorton theorem, Norton's theorem holds, to illustrate in DC circuit theory terms, that (see image):
Any linear electrical network with voltage and current sources and only resistances can be replaced at terminals A-Bby an
equivalent current source Ino in parallel connection with an equivalent resistance Rno.
This equivalent current Ino is the current obtained at terminals A-B of the network with terminals A-B short circuited.
This equivalent resistance Rno is the resistance obtained at terminals A-B of the network with all its voltage sources short
circuited and all its current sources open circuited.
For AC systems the theorem can be applied to reactive impedances as well as resistances.
The Norton equivalent circuit is used to represent any network of linear sources and impedances at a given frequency.
Norton's theorem and its dual, Thvenin's theorem, are widely used for circuit analysis simplification and to study circuit's initial-condition
and steady-state response.
Norton's theorem was independently derived in 1926 by Siemens & Halske researcher Hans Ferdinand Mayer (18951980) and Bell
Labs engineer Edward Lawry Norton (18981983).[1][2][3][4][5]
To find the equivalent,
1. Find the Norton current Ino. Calculate the output current, IAB, with a short circuit as the load (meaning 0 resistance between A and B).
This is Ino.
2. Find the Norton resistance Rno. When there are no dependent sources (all current and voltage sources are independent), there are
two methods of determining the Norton impedance Rno.
Calculate the output voltage, VAB, when in open circuit condition (i.e., no load resistor meaning infinite load
resistance). Rno equals this VAB divided by Ino.
or
Replace independent voltage sources with short circuits and independent current sources with open circuits. The total
resistance across the output port is the Norton impedance Rno.
This is equivalent to calculating the Thevenin resistance.
However, when there are dependent sources, the more general method must be used. This method is not shown below in the
diagrams.
Connect a constant current source at the output terminals of the circuit with a value of 1 Ampere and calculate the voltage at its
terminals. This voltage divided by the 1 A current is the Norton impedance Rno. This method must be used if the circuit contains
dependent sources, but it can be used in all cases even when there are no dependent sources.
1.
The original circuit
2. Calculating the equivalent output current
3. Calculating the equivalent resistance
4. Design the equivalent circuit
In the example, the total current Itotal is given by:
The current through the load is then, using the current divider rule:
And the equivalent resistance looking back into the circuit is:
So the equivalent circuit is a 3.75 mA current source in parallel with a 2 k resistor.
A Norton equivalent circuit is related to the Thvenin equivalent by the equations:
AC CIRCUITS :AC VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
POWER FACTOR AND CURRENT VALUES IN AND AC CIRCUIT CONTAINING LCR CIRCUIT
SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS
AC MOTORS
SINGLE PHASE, THREE PHASE
STAR AND DELTA CONNECTIONS
ELECTRIC FUSES
CIRCUIT BRAKERS.
UNIT 3 : MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT:
BIOT AND SAVART'S LAW
The Biot-Savarts law gives the magnetic field produced due to a current carrying segment. This segment
is taken as a vector quantity known as the current element.
Consider a wire carrying a current i in a specific direction as shown in the above figure. Take a small
element of the wire of length ds. The direction of this element is along that of the current so that it forms a
vector ids. If we wish to know the magnetic field produced at a point due to this small element, then we
can use the Biot-Savarts Law. Let the position vector of the point in question drawn from the current
element be r and the angle between the two be . Then,
dB = 04 i ds sin r2
Where 0 is the permeability of free space and is equal to 4 10-7 TmA-1.
The direction of the magnetic field is always in a plane perpendicular to the line element and position
vector. It is given by the right hand thumb rule where the thumb points to the direction of conventional
current and the other fingers show the magnetic field directions.
In the figure shown above the direction of magnetic field is pointing into the page.
This can be expressed in terms of vectors as:
dBdB = 04 i ds r^r2
Let us use this law in an example to calculate the Magnetic field due to a wire carrying current in a loop.
MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO A SOLENOID CARRYING CURRENT
EFFECT OF IRON CORE IN A SOLENOID
HELMHOLTZ GALVANOMETER
MOVING COIL BALLISTIC GALVANOMETER
THEORY
DAMPING CORRECTION
DETERMINATION OF THE ABSOLUTE CAPACITY OF A CONDENSER USING B.G.
UNIT 4 : ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ITS APPLICATION
FARADAY'S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
INDUCTOR AND INDUCTANCE
DETERMINATION OF SELF INDUCTANCE OF A COIL USING ANDERSON METHOD
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF ABSOLUTE MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING
EARTH INDUCTOR
USES OF EARTH INDUCTOR
MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OF THE EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD
MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL COMPONENT OF EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD
CALIBRATION OF B.G
INDUCTION COIL AND ITS USES.
UNIT 5 : MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
BASIC EQUATIONS
TYPES OF CURRENTS
Direct Current
Direct current is electric current that only flows in one direction. A common place to find direct current is in batteries. A
battery is first charged using direct current that is then transformed into chemical energy. When the battery is in use, it
turns the chemical energy back into electricity in the form of direct current. Batteries need direct current to charge up,
and will only produce direct current.
Alternating Current
Alternating current, as the name implies, alternates in direction. Alternating current is used for the production and
transportation of electricity. This is because when electricity is produced in large scale, such as in a power plant, it has
dangerously high voltage. It is easier and cheaper to downgrade this current to lower voltage for home use when the
current is AC. However, there was another factor that helped determine the choice of AC as the current of choice for
domestic consumption. In the late 19th century, an industrial struggle between the Westinghouse Company, which used
AC, and General Electric, which used DC, ended in AC's favor when Westinghouse successfully lit the 1893 Chicago
World's Fair using AC. Since then, alternating current powers homes and anything else that draws on the current in power
lines.
VACCUM DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS
MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS IN FREE SPACE
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN FREE SPACE
PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE IN A NON CONDUCTING MEDIUM
HERTZ EXPERIMENT
ENERGY DENSITY OF E.M. WAVE
POYNTING'S THEOREM
ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME.
