JACOBS

COMPLETE
CNC GUIDE
Version 2.0
Released May 15, 2016

CONTENTS
OVERVIEW 2
BASIC DIGITAL WORKFLOW 5
BASIC PHYSICAL WORKFLOW 7
CAM FUNDAMENTALS 10
OPERATIONS IN DETAIL 13
2D & 2.5D OPERATIONS 17
3D OPERATIONS 18
SIMULATING 19
POST-PROCESSING 20
TOOL SELECTION 21
FEEDS, SPEEDS and STEPS 24
WORKHOLDING 26
PART FLIPS 28
OVERVIEW
In this class, we will go over how to execute CAM toolpaths in Autodesk Fusion 360 for
CNC machining on the ShopBot, Othermill, or other CNC machines. CAM stands for
computer aided manufacturing, and is the process by which the geometry of a CAD model
(computer aided design) is translated into lines Gcode that the CNC machine can read in order
to fabricate parts.

Here is that process in more detail:

• A CNC milling machine cuts parts using spinning cutters called endmills.

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• This cutter is moved along XYZ axes on the CNC machine, and the part is placed within
this coordinate system.

• The XYZ commands are read by the CNC in a format called Gcode.

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• CAM is the process of creating Gcode from a CAD model.

This process creates a sequence of movements for the endmill to make in order to remove all
the material around a part - leaving just the desired geometry behind.
This guide will outline the steps to properly create Gcode for a given part. CAM is a
visual programming process, but it includes a large number of parameters that must match the
material you are using, the cutters available, the capabilities of the machine, and more. Read
on!

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Before we start, CAM is all about aligning your work in the computer to match the physical
environment! Essentially you are programming a robot without eyes and ears, so everything
has to be exactly where it expects, or things can go very wrong!

There is a simple workflow that you will move through in preparing a CNC cut. Each step
must be executed in the digital workspace, and replicated or synchronized in the physical
world. We will use a color scheme to suggest a reliable workflow to get ready to cut in CAM:

- Workholding: how your work is secured for the cut - often considering how
screws or fixtures will avoid being hit by the spinning cutter!
- Stock material: original block of material in which your part is contained.
- WCS: work coordinate system - the “home” point and part orientation.
- Tools and toolpaths: tools need to be measured each time they are loaded and
match what is specified in CAM.

BASIC DIGITAL WORKFLOW

1. Workholding: The CAM process starts when you choose your workholding strategy for
keeping your material rigidly attached to the table during cutting. Additionally, you need
to keep your part firmly attached to the material until the very end of a cut. This may
mean adding geometry to CAD or using the “Tabs” feature to create was of holding your
part to the stock material.

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2. Stock Material: When you are ready to start creating your CAM toolpaths, you will begin
by creating a setup to define your stock material (the yellow box).

3. WCS: In your setup, you will create a WCS home position - this will the machine where
your part is within it’s own XYZ space, and how it is oriented.

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4. Tools and Toolpaths: Once your setup is complete, you will use various strategies to design
toolpaths using the cutting tools available. The tools must match in your computer’s CAM
and in the CNC machine! Making toolpaths is the bulk of CAM work.

BASIC PHYSICAL WORKFLOW

The physical workflow will mimic the sequence outlined in the digital workflow above. Each
component of the sequence must match in both the physical world (i.e. in the CNC machine)
and in the digital world (your CAM software).

1. Workholding: Design (and implement) solid workholding of material - tabs, tape, screws,
brad nails, vises, or custom fixtures, depending on machining forces and geometry.

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2. Stock Material: Milling stock material to size - make sure it matches in the computer!

3. WCS: Finding physical WCS - matching the location and orientation of the material to the
computer’s stock material and WCS.

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4. Cutting: Make sure the cutting tools are properly measured and match your CAM
selections (each CNC machine has a different way of measuring tools).

The critical aspect of the physical workflow is that it matches the digital workflow. Each step
must be synchronized between the computer and the CNC machine. If the steps are not
replicated exactly between the digital and the physical world - things can take a serious turn
for the worse!


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CAM FUNDAMENTALS
This section will guide you through the basic elements in creating a toolpath.

• Setup: The first step to creating a GCode toolpath

is to make a setup for your part. Within a setup,
you will find options to define the orientation of
the model relative to the machine’s XYZ axes, as
well as sizing the stock material that contains
your part. These are the most important sections
of a setup.

• Part orientation and WCS home: The part may be oriented properly with your CAD software
for how you want to orient it in the machine, but you also may choose to define new
reference axes for the X, Y, and/or Z axis. Keep in mind, that this orientation must
match how you load it into the machine compared to the machines XYZ axes. Same goes
for where on your part you place the XYZ home location, which you must be able to
locate precisely within the machine. For this reason, a corner is usually best.

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• Stock material: The size of your stock material will initially be defined to be a relative
amount compared to the box that precisely contains your part. This is a good approach -
to leave extra material - however, whatever size you create for your stock material must
be matched by the piece you load into the machine. For that reason, select “Fixed sized
box” from the drop menu. This allows you to define a nice round number as the stock
size. Of course, it should still be larger than the part, but ideally it is easy toolpath
measure and cut on a table saw, or other machine.

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• Operations: Once your setup is defined, the next step is to plan operations for cutting.
Operations are distinct algorithms for creating groups of like features in your part. There
are two major groups of operations… 2D features that are accurately represented by a two-
dimensional image and a certain extrusion depth, and 3D surfaces that can be complex
curves, splines or organic contours. Within each of these groups, there are detailed
parameters controlling the spindle speed, tool feed rate, which features to machine, and
many other parameters, detailed below.

• Each operation uses a single tool to work on a given feature.

• Most CNC projects will require multiple operations to cut features one by one.
• Your operations get exported later as lines of code…
• Think of CAM as a visual programming process!

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OPERATIONS IN DETAIL

OPERATION TABS

• There are five tabs for parameters for any given operation: Tool, Geometry, Heights,
Passes and Linking.
• Most of CAM happens in specifying the exact parameters for each operation within
these tabs.

This section will address each of these tabs, and explain how they are used in creating an
operation. Each one will require a little practice to get used to, but this guide will try to
highlight some of the key features to pay attention to as you make your way through your first
round of CAM. Most of CAM happens in specifying the exact parameters for each operation in
these five tabs, which we will discuss in order from left to right.

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TOOL
The tool tab allows you to program your tool
to make a successful cut. The first step here is
to select a tool that is appropriately sized -
large enough to clear material quickly without
bending or breaking, but still small enough to
fit into all the small corners of your part.
Often, parts will require multiple tools, which
means making separate operations for each
tool.
Once you have a tool selected, you’ll need to
specify speeds and feeds for that tool. “Speed”
is code for the spindle speed, or rpm’s of the
cutting tool. Smaller tools require higher
rpm’s. “Feed” refers to how fast the tool moves
across your material, and is measured in
inches per minute. Good starting values are
12000rpm speed (depends on machine
capability) and 40 in/min feed (depending on
material). These numbers vary drastically
based on material, machine, and other CAM
parameters. Softer material (like wood) can be
milled much more aggressively than hard
material (like metal). Check out FSWizard
(linked) for a feed and speed calculator, or ask
a Design Specialist for advice! And be sure to
download the tool library from Bcourses.

As a rule of thumb, the Lead-In and Lead-Out

Feedrate and ramp should be about 75% of the
Cutting Feedrate, and Plunge should be 25% of
the cutting feedrate.

See the Feeds, Speeds, and Steps section for tips.

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GEOMETRY
The geometry tab allows you to select the features you want to work on with the current
operation. In some cases, like drilling a hole, the selecting the geometry will be very specific
to the feature being created. In other cases, like the Pocket operation pictured below, the
geometry selected acts as a boundary for the operation to be contained within that area. You
can even adjust the limit for the machining using Tool Containment to happen inside the selected
geometry, allow the center of the tool to reach the specified contour, or to extend outside of it,
slightly. Adjustments can be made using an additional offset, to allow the tool to reach the
desired areas. By default it uses the 2D (XY plane) silhouette of your part.

HEIGHTS
The heights tab allows you to set limits for machining in
the Z-axis. It prevents the tool from crashing into the
table, or working on features below a certain level that you
specify. It also tells the tool how high to lift off the surface
of your work while moving from one section of a cut to
another.
The Clearance and Retract Heights are set 0.4” and 0.2” above
the stock top, which are fine unless you have clamps or
other fixtures near your work, which you need to leave
room for. In that case, increase these values accordingly.
The Top Height is the top of the machining work to be
performed. Usually this is at the top of the model or stock,
but in some cases you may select another feature for this
reference point.
The Bottom Height will frequently be the bottom of your
part/stock, but many times you will want to use a certain
tool or operation for only a certain part of your work, in
which case you can use this selection or add an offset to
keep it from going lower.

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PASSES
In the Passes tab, you can control the fine dynamics of the
toolpath you have selected. These controls will vary from
operation to operation, but the big ones are the
(Maximum) Stepdown/Stepover and Stock to Leave. This will
give you a sense for what to look for in an operation.
Mouse hover over any item in Fusion to get a great
description and visual of what it controls.
• Step-overs/downs will determine the distance between
passes as it cuts material. For a clearing operation
where the goal is material removal, these steps will be
stepdowns (in Z) as the tool removes the material one
layer at a time (in picture at right, every 0.040”). In
general, use about 50% of cutter diameter as a
maximum stepdown for clearing wood, and 10% for
metals - harder material means a smaller step is
needed. For surfacing operations, steps will be
sideways stepovers on a flat surface (in X or Y), along an
contoured surface (in X, Y and Z). Smaller stepovers
create smoother surfaces, but longer cutting times -
start with 5-10% of cutter diameter. Step size also
affects the force applied to the cutter. safe values are
• Stock to Leave can allow one operation to clear a section
of material without touching the final surface of the
part you are working on. Using stock to leave means
you can use aggressive passes to clear away most of the
material, then go back in a second operation without
stock to leave and cut the final surface cleanly.

LINKING
The Linking tab is the most esoteric. It controls certain
functions for how the tool approaches your material for a
cut (ramping), as well as how it moves between cuts. For
the most part, this tab can be skipped in basic CAM
operations. However, it can be a good place to check if
your toolpaths cannot compute for some reason. One of
the most common errors is that ramping spirals are set to
be too big for the geometry they are supposed to be
ramping into…
One major item is the Retraction Policy, which is to lift all
the way up to the Retract Height set in the Heights tab, and
then to all the tool to move at full rapid speed (as fast as
it is able). These settings affect overall machining time,
and generally also should be left as is. But in some cases
you may not want full retraction, to keep the tool low to
the material. 


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2D & 2.5D OPERATIONS

2D operations are the easiest to program

and are also, fortunately, the most common feature
in most kinds of models. 2D features project
simple, linear information to a depth that you are
able to set, and they can be programmed on
surfaces, sketches, or extrusions (such as the J) in
the demo part. Edges or surfaces can be selected to
create a bounding area for machining, and the tool
will disregard any other model information and
just obey that boundary up to the specified depth.
Typically 2D operations will be made using
a flat end mill, and will program an efficient
lateral clearing of the area (stepover), then proceed
to a deeper level (stepdown), and repeat. It is also
possible to use specialty milling tools to do more
advanced cuts based on 2D data, such as
chamfering and engraving.
Always start your CAM with 2D operations
whenever possible!

• The basic list of 2D features:

• 2D Adaptive & Pocket: These features are for clearing areas of material. Adaptive
optimizes for tool load, pocket reduces cutting time. Most other strategies
operate based on linear geometry. These target a selected area.
• Face: creates a smooth top profile on material.
• 2D Contour: follows a selected edge or sketch - it will not carve an area, just
along a path.
• Slot: mills a slot in a part based on just a given line.
• Trace: behaves the same way as 2D Contour, but can handle variation in the Z-
axis.
• Thread: is used with a specific threadmill to machine threads for nuts or screws.
• Bore: creates a helical path for making flat-bottomed circular holes with an
endmill. This is preferred to Drilling because tools are easier to hold, one tool
can make many sizes of holes, and the size can be tweaked for high precision.
• Circular: Bore but for round positive shapes.
• Engrave: for engraving letters with v-walls.
• 2D Chamfer: creates chamfers on linear edges.
• Drilling: For using a drill bit to plunge down in only the Z-axis for selected
circular geometry. Drilling is more like a 1D operation and is listed separately.
At Jacobs, Bore is strongly preferred!


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3D OPERATIONS v

3D operations respond to the actual surfaces of

your model within a given bounding area. This means
they can clear all the material within a given area of
your model, or work on any number of surfaces
(especially curved surfaces) to leave a smooth finish.
These are crucial working on organic geometric, smooth
round parts, or any other non-rectilinear part geometry.
3D ops are ideal for more complex geometry that cannot
be properly represented by a 2D sketch and an extrusion.
The clearing operations (also called roughing) are
typically used to remove large amounts of material
around a complex surface using a flat end mill. Material
is removed in a sequence of steps and depths to gradually
approach the part - usually with a buffer so it never
actually touches the part itself (using Stock to Leave)… But
gets the waste out of the way!
All the other operations (called surfacing) bring
the tool immediately into contact with the surface of the
part, and are used for surfacing a complex geometry.
Surfacing operations are generally used with a ball end
mill. Never use a surfacing operation without first clearing away
material from the surface, otherwise you will be likely to break a tool
as it rapidly plunges all the way to the part surface.

• The basic list of 3D features:

• 3D Adaptive & Pocket: These features are for clearing areas of material. Adaptive
optimizes for tool load for industrial use, but for prototyping pocket is a better
choice since it reduces cutting time.
• Parallel: moves back and forth over the material, in one direction, with a
perpendicular stepover.
• Contour: uses a stepdown increment to machine slanted features.
• Ramp: Like Contour, but uses a continuous path, rather than a discreet stepdown
increment.
• Horizontal: automatically picks out flat sections.
• Pencil: good for final cleaning up of tiny corners that larger tools cannot reach.
• Scallop: the go-to surfacing strategy that uses a smart stepover approach to make
consistent increments over all angles of a complex surface.
• Spiral: Creates a continuous spiral toolpath from a center point and a stepover.
• Radial: angular stepovers from a center point.
• Morphed Spiral: hybrid between Spiral and Scallop.
• Project: used to project contours on the surface as a toolpath, usually for
engraving. 


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SIMULATING

Simulation is a great way to review your toolpaths with a live animation. By doing this, you
can check for errors and make sure you correctly machined all the features of your part. By
using the “Stock” checkbox, you also get a color-coded display of the work done by each tool.
Make sure you are using tools from the Jacobs Tool Libraries so that all the data - especially
about collisions - is accurate.

Finally, in the statistics tab, you can see a time

estimate for the cut, although this may very from
machine to machine. This is a critical piece of
feedback. It may not be 100% accurate for your
particular job, but it will give you a good sense of
time for changes you can make in your CAM
operations.
If a job looks like it will take many, many hours,
try increasing depth of cut, width of cut, or
stepovers… It may also mean you need to use
larger tools, or avoid Adaptive Clearing operations.
Making a successful cut is an iterative process, and
the simulation tab is critical in making good
operations. Consult a design specialist!


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POST-PROCESSING
The Post-Processing step is really just an export,
which formats all your colorful toolpaths into
monotonous lines of highly precise lines of
Gcode. The exact Gcode format depends on the
specific CNC machine you are using. Fusion 360
comes loaded for lots of different types of CNCs.
Pick the one that best matches your machine
from the drop-down Post processor menu. In
general, we have validated the use of the
shopbot.cps post processor, as well as the generic
Othermill post-processor. Set a destination
folder that is easy to find, and get ready to move
that file to the CNC machine via USB or
Google Drive.
Please report any glitchy behavior to a DS!

Tips:
• Be sure to select the post processor that was designed for your machine!
• You can create a program number in a six-digit format that is standard for many CNC
machines (ie 000001 or 994527) and give it a unique name.
• Sometimes you may be prompted to name the file after hitting OK. This is just the file
name.
• Note that for Shopbot, the file must end in “.spb” or the Shopbot controller will not
recognize it!
• We recommend always selecting all the jobs for one tool, and processing them as a group,
but keeping operations with different tools saved as separate Gcode files!


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TOOL SELECTION
CNC milling tools are predominantly drill bits and
end mills, although many complex specialty tools
like face- or shear-mills are common as well.
• A drill bit is used to make holes of one specific
size by spinning the bit while plunging straight
down to make the cut. The spiral flutes are
predominantly to all for chips to clear as the
cut progresses, not for cutting.
• End mills work similarly to drill bits, except that they tend to be shorter and more rigid.
This combined with strong, sharp, flutes allows the cutter to work not only axially
(plunging) but radially (moving side to side) as well. This means endmills cut make
complex three-dimensional shapes in material.

cutting edge

chip clearing

• Flat end mills (FEM) are perfect for

working on square geometry common
to mechanical models. They are also
the go-to tools for making rough
clearing operations on more complex
geometries.
• Ball end mills (BEM) are the ideal
tool for surfacing complex, organic
models.
• Bull-nose end mills are a combination
of FEM and BEM.
• Chamfer end mills are primarily used
for engraving.

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• Flat end mills are great for square geometries, because their shape matches the desires wall
profile. Ball end mills are not good for square features, because they don’t match the
desired geometry. Instead, they will leave small ridges on flat surfaces, and fillets in the
corners of square walls.

• Flat end mills are not a great choice for leaving a smooth finish on a curved surface.
Rather than leaving a smooth surface, it will leave square ridges along the surface. A ball
end mill will also leave ridges along a curved surface, but the ridges will be much smaller
and leave a far smoother surface than a FEM.


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• By increasing the ratio of the tool size to the size of the stepover, the scallops (ridges on the
surface left by the tool) will become smaller. This can be done by increasing the tool
diameter, or decreasing the stepover size. Or both… In the bottom image, you can see the
difference between stepover and stepdown strategies. Stepdowns work better on steep walls,
while stepovers are better on flatter surfaces.

B: larger tool B
same step

A C: smaller step
same tool

A smaller stepover will increase the overall finish of the

final product, but the cut will take longer to execute.

 C

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FEEDS, SPEEDS and STEPS
This section has more detail on how to safely program the most important details of a CNC
cut: tool load. Many factors contribute to how much pressure there is on a tool - too much
pressure on a tool can: leave a uneven machining marks from chatter, create inaccurate
dimensions due to the tool bending, and in drastic cases either break the tool, or tear the
workpiece free from workholding.
Some basic terminology:
• Spindle speed: the rotation rate of the spindle holding the tool (measured in rotations per
minute - rpm). Smaller tools will require higher spindle speeds to keep chip load low.
• Feed rate: how fast the cutter traverses across the material during (measured in inches per
minute in/min). Larger tools can be run at higher feed rates without breaking.
• Chip load: The combination of spindle speed and feedrate give you the size of the chip created as
each of the cutting flutes of the cutter passes through the material. This value is one good
way of estimating how hard a tool is working, although it doesn’t take into account
materials or the depth and width of a cut. Fusion calls this number “Feed per tooth.”
• Climb vs Conventional Milling: In climb milling, the cutter rolls along the surface and makes the
deepest cut at the beginning, whereas conventional milling pushes against the material and
the cut gets thinner. Climb milling tends to produce a cleaner surface.

• Depth of Cut and Width of Cut: These parameters, (and the

feedrate), determine how large a volume of material is
removed at a time. Deeper, wider cuts remove material
more quickly, but put more pressure on the tool.
Depth of Cut (DOC) and Width of Cut (WOC) are
controlled in Fusion by Stepdown/Maximum stepdown and
Stepover respectively. The width of cut should almost
always be about half of the cutter diameter (Fusion
default),. This changes, of course, with how deep the
cut is, because together the determine how much is
material is being moved at one time. For example, for a
small depth of cut, a large width of cut can be used (up
to 95% of cutter diameter), but a very small fraction
should be used if the depth of cut is very large.

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Below is a general list of guidelines for setting a depth of cut of cut as a percentage of tool
diameter, based on different types of materials.

Below are speed and feed rate recommendations. These are good, conservative starting
points. Start here, change if needed. The should be defaults for cutting speeds.

• Lead-Ins, Lead-Outs, Ramps, and Plunges: these speeds modes all require different speeds
than cutting. Lead-ins and ramps are transitions from air into a cutting move. This
moment of a cut is a sudden shock on the tool. As a result they should be about
75-100% of cutting feedrate, but the same spindle speed. Ramps slowly remove
material in Z to approach a new cutting depth, and should be about 50% of cutting
feedrate. Plunges are high force and should be 25% of the cutting feedrate.
These numbers assume HSS tools (high speed steel) a three-fluted end mill - less flutes will
require slower speeds. Also refer to FSWizard: http://zero-divide.net/?page=fswizard.

Download our custom Jacobs Tool Libraries on BCourses! Follow the ReadMe file for the
instructions to upload the libraries. All these values are stored in the tool library, and the
all the tools are carefully modeled to give you valuable information during Simulation.

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WORKHOLDING
There are two components to workholding on a CNC machine. The first is to hold your stock
material firmly in the machine while cutting happens - in proper alignment and without
chatter. The second issue is holding your part as you mill it free from the stock material.
Holding stock material happens in a few main ways (but the sky is the limit), listed strongest
to weakest. In general, at Jacobs we don’t have machines for heavy duty milling, so we tend to
use weaker (and faster) workholding methods.

• Vise: Vises are the most secure form of

workholding, and have the added bonus of
aligning with the worktable orientation
when they are bolted down. However, the are
not compatible with all CNC tables, and are
not great solutions if there is not a way to
properly orient them to the CNC axes. Parts
must be designed to accommodate the jaws of
the vise. Best for voluminous parts, not sheet
materials.

• Nails/screws: By using brad nails, polymer

brad nails, deck screws, or regular nails,
work can be held securely down the the
spoilerboard. These methods do not ensure
accurate registration of the workpiece relative
to the machine axes, so it usually wise to
leave additional stock material as a buffer. At
Jacobs, we prefer polymer brads, since if they
are hit during machining, there is no
damage. Be careful with steel screws!

• Tape: Double-sided tape is a great way to

fixture materials for lightweight milling.
This is most common with soft materials
(woods, plastics, foam, and wax), because the
cutting forces remain low. With harder
materials such as aluminum, brass, or steel,
the cutting forces could send the piece flying
or build up heat without using coolant (a
lubricant that would weaken the tape). Try to
cover at least half the area being adhered.

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Keeping parts from flying off once they are fully cut out is accomplished in three main ways,
although there are many other creative options that could be designed…

• Tabs: Tabs are added onto the base physical model that is being machined. By
adding tabs, the part remains attached to the rest of the stock material. The
downside, however, is that these tabs must be cut off by hands and sanded flush,
which means extra time finishing. They are ideally machined away (by thin web)
during subsequent operations, since otherwise each part requires hand-finishing.

• Thin-web: A thin-web is a layer of material 0.005”-0.010” thick. This is just enough

to keep the part help to the stock, but held by so little that it can be pulled free by
hand. This can be done by adjusting the machining heights to prevent the tool
from reaching the very bottom of the part. Great for multiples. In the photo below
this limit is set in Heights to be 0.008” from bottom.

• Center-holding: This method can be executed in number of ways… If the model has a
hole somewhere in it, holes can be drilled first and then the model can be secured
with a bolt or screw through the hole… Otherwise, tabs or a thin-web can be
machined to nothing by using double-sided tape to hold the bottom of the part
down at the end of the cut.


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PART FLIPS
Part flips require a far higher degree of accuracy than one-sided machining. In order to
execute a part flip, you must have a precise reference that is the same for the top of the cut
and the bottom of the cut. Additionally, you need to have some way of aligning the second side
cut to the exact same orientation relative to the machine’s X & Y axes in order to have all the
features line up.
The most common method to do this would be to machine a square board to ensure your part
is precisely aligned with the machine X & Y axes - before and after the part flip. By using a
second reference edge, you could then secure your part in the same position along the first
axis.

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