?

A colorful tail-spot wrasse (Halichoeres

melanurus) is about 10 cm long and can
float in the ocean with little effort, while a
manta ray (Manta birostris) is more than
5 m across and must “flap” its fins continu-
ously to keep from sinking. Which of these
best explains the difference? A manta ray
has (i) a different shape; (ii) greater mass;
(iii) greater volume; (iv) a greater product of
mass and volume; (v) a greater ratio of mass
to volume.

12 Fluid Mechanics
F
LEARNING OUTCOMES luids play a vital role in many aspects of everyday life. We drink them, breathe
In this chapter, you’ll learn...
them, swim in them. They circulate through our bodies and control our weather.
12.1 The meaning of the density of a material
The physics of fluids is therefore crucial to our understanding of both nature
and the average density of an object. and technology.
12.2 What is meant by the pressure in a fluid, We begin our study with fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest in equilibrium situa-
and how it is measured. tions. Like other equilibrium situations, it is based on Newton’s first and third laws. We’ll
12.3 How to calculate the buoyant force that a
explore the key concepts of density, pressure, and buoyancy. Fluid dynamics, the study of
fluid exerts on an object immersed in it.
12.4 The significance of laminar versus turbu-
fluids in motion, is much more complex; indeed, it is one of the most complex branches of
lent fluid flow, and how the speed of flow mechanics. Fortunately, we can analyze many important situations by using simple ideal-
in a tube depends on the tube’s size. ized models and familiar principles such as Newton’s laws and conservation of energy.
12.5 How to use Bernoulli’s equation to relate Even so, we’ll barely scratch the surface of this broad and interesting topic.
pressure and flow speed at different
points in certain types of flow.
12.6 How viscous flow and turbulent flow
differ from ideal flow. 12.1 GASES, LIQUIDS, AND DENSITY
You’ll need to review... A fluid is any substance that can flow and change the shape of the volume that it occupies.
7.1 Mechanical energy change when forces (By contrast, a solid tends to maintain its shape.) We use the term “fluid” for both gases
other than gravity do work. and liquids. The key difference between them is that a liquid has cohesion, while a gas
11.4 Pressure and its units.
does not. The molecules in a liquid are close to one another, so they can exert attractive
forces on each other and thus tend to stay together (that is, to cohere). That’s why a quan-
tity of liquid maintains the same volume as it flows: If you pour 500 mL of water into a
pan, the water will still occupy a volume of 500 mL. The molecules of a gas, by contrast,
are separated on average by distances far larger than the size of a molecule. Hence the
forces between molecules are weak, there is little or no cohesion, and a gas can easily
change in volume. If you open the valve on a tank of compressed oxygen that has a volume
of 500 mL, the oxygen will expand to a far greater volume.
An important property of any material, fluid or solid, is its density, defined as its
mass per unit volume. A homogeneous material such as ice or iron has the same density
throughout. We use r (the Greek letter rho) for density. For a homogeneous material,

Density of a m Mass of material

homogeneous material r = Volume occupied by material (12.1)
V
366
 12.1  Gases, Liquids, and Density    367

Two objects made of the same material have the same density even though they may have Figure 12.1 Two objects with different
different masses and different volumes. That’s because the ratio of mass to volume is the masses and different volumes but the
same density.
same for both objects (Fig. 12.1).
The SI unit of density is the kilogram per cubic meter 11 kg>m32. The cgs unit, the Different mass, same density:
gram per cubic centimeter 11 g>cm32, is also widely used: Because the wrench and nail
are both made of steel, they
1 g>cm3 = 1000 kg>m3 have the same density (mass
per unit volume).
The densities of some common substances at ordinary temperatures are given in
Table 12.1. Note the wide range of magnitudes. The densest material found on earth is
the metal osmium 1r = 22,500 kg>m32, but its density pales by comparison to the den-
sities of exotic astronomical objects, such as white dwarf stars and neutron stars. Steel wrench Steel nail
The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its density to the density of water at
4.0°C, 1000 kg>m3; it is a pure number without units. For example, the specific gravity of
aluminum is 2.7. “Specific gravity” is a poor term, since it has nothing to do with gravity;
“relative density” would have been a better choice.
The density of some materials varies from point to point within the material. One ex-
ample is the material of the human body, which includes low-density fat (about 940 kg>m3)
and high-density bone (from 1700 to 2500 kg>m3). Two others are the earth’s atmosphere BIO APPLICATION Liquid Cohesion
in Trees How do trees—some of which
(which is less dense at high altitudes) and oceans (which are denser at greater depths). For grow to heights greater than 100 m—supply
these materials, Eq. (12.1) describes the average density. In general, the density of a ma- water to their highest leaves? The answer
terial depends on environmental factors such as temperature and pressure. lies in the strong cohesive forces between
molecules of liquid water. Narrow pipes
within the tree extend upward from the roots
TABLE 12.1 Densities of Some Common Substances to the leaves. As water evaporates from the
Material Density 1kg , m3 2 * Material Density 1kg , m3 2 * leaves, cohesive forces pull replacement
water upward through these pipes.
Air 11 atm, 20°C2 1.20 Iron, steel 7.8 * 103
Ethanol 0.81 * 103 Brass 8.6 * 103
Benzene 0.90 * 103 Copper 8.9 * 103
Ice 0.92 * 103 Silver 10.5 * 103
Water 1.00 * 103 Lead 11.3 * 103
Seawater 1.03 * 103 Mercury 13.6 * 103
Blood 1.06 * 10 3 Gold 19.3 * 103
Glycerin 1.26 * 103 Platinum 21.4 * 103
Concrete 2 * 103 White dwarf star 1010
Aluminum 2.7 * 103 Neutron star 1018

*To obtain the densities in grams per cubic centimeter, simply divide by 103.

EXAMPLE 12.1 The weight of a roomful of air

Find the mass and weight of the air at 20°C in a living room with a The mass and weight of an equal volume of water are
4.0 m * 5.0 m floor and a ceiling 3.0 m high, and the mass and weight
of an equal volume of water. mwater = rwaterV = 11000 kg>m32160 m32 = 6.0 * 104 kg

IDENTIFY and SET UP We assume that the air density is the same wwater = mwater g = 16.0 * 104 kg219.8 m>s22
throughout the room. (Air is less dense at high elevations than near sea = 5.9 * 105 N = 1.3 * 105 lb = 66 tons
level, but the density varies negligibly over the room’s 3.0 m height;
see Section 12.2.) We use Eq. (12.1) to relate the mass mair to the
room’s volume V (which we’ll calculate) and the air density rair (given EVALUATE A roomful of air weighs about the same as an average adult.
in Table 12.1). Water is nearly a thousand times denser than air, so its mass and weight
are larger by the same factor. The weight of a roomful of water would
EXECUTE We have V = 14.0 m215.0 m213.0 m2 = 60 m3, so from
collapse the floor of an ordinary house.
Eq. (12.1),
mair = rairV = 11.20 kg>m32160 m32 = 72 kg
KEYCONCEPT To find the density of a uniform substance, divide
the mass of the substance by the volume that it occupies.
wair = mair g = 172 kg219.8 m>s22 = 700 N = 160 lb
368    CHAPTER 12 Fluid Mechanics

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 12.1 Rank the following objects in order
from highest to lowest average density: (i) mass m = 4.00 kg, volume V = 1.60 * 10-3 m3;
(ii) m = 8.00 kg, V = 1.60 * 10-3 m3; (iii) m = 8.00 kg, V = 3.20 * 10-3 m3; (iv) m = 2560 kg,
V = 0.640 m3; (v) m = 2560 kg, V = 1.28 m3.

ANSWER
double the volume, so (v) has half the average density of (iv).
(i) and (iii) have the same average density. Finally, object (v) has the same mass as object (iv) but
double the average density. Object (iii) has double the mass and double the volume of object (i), so

(v) r = 12560 kg2>11.28 m32 = 2.00 * 103 kg>m3.

Note that compared to object (i), object (ii) has double the mass but the same volume and so has

(iv) r = 12560 kg2>10.640 m32 = 4.00 * 103 kg>m3;

(iii) r = 18.00 kg2>13.20 * 10-3 m32 = 2.50 * 103 kg>m3;
(ii) r = 18.00 kg2>11.60 * 10-3 m32 = 5.00 * 103 kg>m3;
(i) r = 14.00 kg2>11.60 * 10-3 m32 = 2.50 * 103 kg>m3;
❙ (ii), (iv), (i) and (iii) (tie), (v) In each case the average density equals the mass divided by the volume:

12.2 PRESSURE IN A FLUID

A fluid exerts a force perpendicular to any surface in contact with it, such as a container
wall or an object immersed in the fluid. This is the force that you feel pressing on your
legs when you dangle them in a swimming pool. Even when a fluid as a whole is at rest,
the molecules that make up the fluid are in motion; the force exerted by the fluid is due to
molecules colliding with their surroundings.
Figure 12.2 Forces acting on a small Imagine a surface within a fluid at rest. For this surface and the fluid to remain at rest,
surface within a fluid at rest. the fluid must exert forces of equal magnitude but opposite direction on the surface’s two
A small surface of area sides. Consider a small surface of area dA centered on a point in the fluid; the normal
d A within a fluid at rest force exerted by the fluid on each side is dF# (Fig. 12.2). We define the pressure p at that
point as the normal force per unit area—that is, the ratio of dF# to dA (Fig. 12.3):

Normal force exerted by fluid

dF# Pressure at a dF on a small surface at that point
dF# dA point in a fluid p = # (12.2)
dA Area of surface

If the pressure is the same at all points of a finite plane surface with area A, then
The surface does not accelerate, so the
surrounding fluid exerts equal normal forces F#
on both sides of it. (The fluid cannot exert any
p = (12.3)
A
force parallel to the surface, since that would
cause the surface to accelerate.) where F# is the net normal force on one side of the surface. The SI unit of pressure is the
pascal, where
1 pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N>m2
We introduced the pascal in Chapter 11. Two related units, used principally in meteorol-
Figure 12.3 Pressure is a scalar with units ogy, are the bar, equal to 105 Pa, and the millibar, equal to 100 Pa.
of newtons per square meter. By contrast, Atmospheric pressure pa is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere, the pressure at
force is a vector with units of newtons. the bottom of this sea of air in which we live. This pressure varies with weather changes
and with elevation. Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level (an average value) is
These surfaces differ 1 atmosphere (atm), defined to be exactly 101,325 Pa. To four significant figures,
in area and orientation ...
2dF#
1pa2av = 1 atm = 1.013 * 105 Pa
= 1.013 bar = 1013 millibar = 14.70 lb>in.2
dF# dF# 2dA
dA    CAUTION    Don’t confuse pressure and force In everyday language “pressure” and “force”
... but the pressure on
mean pretty much the same thing. In fluid mechanics, however, these words describe very differ-
them (force magnitude 2dF ent quantities. Pressure acts perpendicular to any surface in a fluid, no matter how that surface is
#
divided by area) is the oriented (Fig. 12.3). Hence pressure has no direction of its own; it’s a scalar. By contrast, force is
same (and is a scalar). a vector with a definite direction. Remember, too, that pressure is force per unit area. As Fig. 12.3
shows, a surface with twice the area has twice as much force exerted on it by the fluid, so the pres-
sure is the same. ❙
 12.2  Pressure in a Fluid    369

EXAMPLE 12.2 The force of air

In the room described in Example 12.1, what is the total downward EVALUATE Unlike the water in Example 12.1, F# will not collapse the
force on the floor due to an air pressure of 1.00 atm? floor here, because there is an upward force of equal magnitude on
the floor’s underside. If the house has a basement, this upward force
IDENTIFY and SET UP This example uses the relationship among the
is exerted by the air underneath the floor. In this case, if we ignore the
pressure p of a fluid (air), the area A subjected to that pressure, and the
thickness of the floor, the net force due to air pressure is zero.
resulting normal force F# the fluid exerts. The pressure is uniform, so
we use Eq. (12.3), F# = pA, to determine F# . The floor is horizontal, so
F# is vertical (downward). KEYCONCEPT To find the force exerted by a fluid perpendicular to
EXECUTE We have A = 14.0 m215.0 m2 = 20 m2, so from Eq. (12.3), a surface, multiply the pressure of the fluid by the surface’s area. This
relationship comes from the definition of pressure as the normal force
F# = pA = 11.013 * 105 N>m22120 m22 per unit area within the fluid.
= 2.0 * 106 N = 4.6 * 105 lb = 230 tons

Pressure, Depth, and Pascal’s Law

If the weight of the fluid can be ignored, the pressure in a fluid is the same throughout its vol-
ume. We used that approximation in our discussion of bulk stress and strain in Section 11.4.
But often the fluid’s weight is not negligible, and pressure variations are important.
Atmospheric pressure is less at high altitude than at sea level, which is why airliner cabins
have to be pressurized. When you dive into deep water, you can feel the increased pres-
sure on your ears.
We can derive a relationship between the pressure p at any point in a fluid at rest and Figure 12.4 The forces on an element of
the elevation y of the point. We’ll assume that the density r has the same value throughout fluid in equilibrium.
the fluid (that is, the density is uniform), as does the acceleration due to gravity g. If the (a)
fluid is in equilibrium, any thin element of the fluid with thickness dy is also in equilib-
rium (Fig. 12.4a). The bottom and top surfaces each have area A, and they are at eleva-
tions y and y + dy above some reference level where y = 0. The fluid element has volume
dV = A dy, mass dm = r dV = rA dy, and weight dw = dm g = rgA dy.
What are the other forces on this fluid element (Fig 12.4b)? Let’s call the pressure at A dy
the bottom surface p; then the total y-component of upward force on this surface is pA.
An element of a fluid at rest y
The pressure at the top surface is p + dp, and the total y-component of (downward) with area A and thickness dy
force on the top surface is -1p + dp2A. The fluid element is in equilibrium, so the total 0
y-component of force, including the weight and the forces at the bottom and top surfaces,
must be zero:
g Fy = 0
(b)

Force due to pressure The forces on

p + dp on top surface: the four sides
so ( p + dp)A of the element
pA - 1p + dp2A - rgA dy = 0 cancel.

dy
When we divide out the area A and rearrange, we get
dw Weight of the
pA fluid element
dp
= -rg (12.4) Force due to pressure p
dy
on bottom surface
This equation shows that when y increases, p decreases; that is, as we move upward in the Because the fluid is in equilibrium, the vector
fluid, pressure decreases, as we expect. If p1 and p2 are the pressures at elevations y1 and sum of the vertical forces on the fluid element
y2 , respectively, and if r and g are constant, then must be zero: pA - (p + dp)A - dw = 0.

Pressure difference Uniform density of fluid

between two points p2 - p1 = -rg(y2 - y1) (12.5)
Heights of
in a fluid of uniform
the two points
density
Acceleration due to gravity (g 7 0)
370    CHAPTER 12 Fluid Mechanics

Figure 12.5 How pressure varies with It’s often convenient to express Eq. (12.5) in terms of the depth below the surface of a
depth in a fluid with uniform density. fluid (Fig. 12.5). Take point 1 at any level in the fluid and let p represent the pressure at this
point. Take point 2 at the surface of the fluid, where the pressure is p0 (subscript zero for
Fluid, density r zero depth). The depth of point 1 below the surface is h = y2 - y1 , and Eq. (12.5) becomes
p2 = p0
At a depth h, the p0 - p = -rg1y2 - y12 = -rgh or
2 pressure p equals
y2 - y1 = h the surface pressure
p0 plus the pressure Pressure at depth h Uniform density of fluid
p1 = p
y2 rgh due to the in a fluid of uniform p = p0 + rgh Depth below surface (12.6)
1 overlying fluid: density
y1 Pressure at Acceleration due
p = p0 + rgh. surface of fluid to gravity (g 7 0)

Pressure difference between levels 1 and 2:

p2 - p1 = -rg(y2 - y1) The pressure p at a depth h is greater than the pressure p0 at the surface by an amount rgh.
The pressure is greater at the lower level. Note that the pressure is the same at any two points at the same level in the fluid. The
shape of the container does not matter (Fig. 12.6).
Equation (12.6) shows that if we increase the pressure p0 at the top surface, possibly by
using a piston that fits tightly inside the container to push down on the fluid surface, the
pressure p at any depth increases by exactly the same amount. This observation is called
Figure 12.6 Each fluid column has the
same height, no matter what its shape. Pascal’s law.
The pressure at the top of each liquid
column is atmospheric pressure, p0.
PASCAL’S LAW Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undimin-
ished to every portion of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.

The hydraulic lift (Fig. 12.7) illustrates Pascal’s law. A piston with small cross-sectional
area A1 exerts a force F1 on the surface of a liquid such as oil. The applied pressure
h p = F1>A1 is transmitted through the connecting pipe to a larger piston of area A2 . The
applied pressure is the same in both cylinders, so

F1 F2 A2
p = = and F2 = F (12.7)
A1 A2 A1 1
The pressure at the bottom of each liquid
column has the same value p.
The difference between p and p0 is rgh, where
The hydraulic lift is a force-multiplying device with a multiplication factor equal to the
h is the distance from the top to the bottom of ratio of the areas of the two pistons. Dentist’s chairs, car lifts and jacks, many elevators,
the liquid column. Hence all columns have the and hydraulic brakes all use this principle.
same height. For gases the assumption that the density r is uniform is realistic over only short verti-
cal distances. In a room with a ceiling height of 3.0 m filled with air of uniform density
1.2 kg>m3, the difference in pressure between floor and ceiling, given by Eq. (12.6), is

Figure 12.7 The hydraulic lift is an rgh = 11.2 kg>m3219.8 m>s2213.0 m2 = 35 Pa

a­ pplication of Pascal’s law. The size of
the fluid-filled container is exaggerated or about 0.00035 atm, a very small difference. But between sea level and the summit of
for clarity. Mount Everest (8882 m) the density of air changes by nearly a factor of 3, and in this case
A small force is applied to a small piston. we cannot use Eq. (12.6). Liquids, by contrast, are nearly incompressible, and it is usually
Because the pressure p is the a very good approximation to regard their density as independent of pressure.
same at all points
at a given
height in Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure
the fluid ...
If the pressure inside a car tire is equal to atmospheric pressure, the tire is flat. The pres-
F1 sure has to be greater than atmospheric to support the car, so the significant quantity is
F2 the difference between the inside and outside pressures. When we say that the pressure
in a car tire is “32 pounds” (actually 32 lb>in.2, equal to 220 kPa or 2.2 * 105 Pa), we
mean that it is greater than atmospheric pressure (14.7 lb>in.2 or 1.01 * 105 Pa) by this
pA2
pA1 amount. The total pressure in the tire is then 47 lb>in.2 or 320 kPa. The excess pressure
above atmospheric pressure is usually called gauge pressure, and the total pressure is
called absolute pressure. Engineers use the abbreviations psig and psia for “pounds per
... a piston of larger area at the same square inch gauge” and “pounds per square inch absolute,” respectively. If the pressure is
height experiences a larger force. less than atmospheric, as in a partial vacuum, the gauge pressure is negative.
 12.2  Pressure in a Fluid    371

EXAMPLE 12.3 Finding absolute and gauge pressures WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

Water stands 12.0 m deep in a storage tank whose top is open to the gauge: p - p0 = 12.19 - 1.012 * 105 Pa
atmosphere. What are the absolute and gauge pressures at the bottom = 1.18 * 105 Pa = 1.16 atm = 17.1 lb>in.2
of the tank?
IDENTIFY and SET UP Table 11.2 indicates that water is nearly incom- EVALUATE A pressure gauge at the bottom of such a tank would prob-
pressible, so we can treat it as having uniform density. The level of the ably be calibrated to read gauge pressure rather than absolute pressure.
top of the tank corresponds to point 2 in Fig. 12.5, and the level of the
bottom of the tank corresponds to point 1. Our target variable is p in KEYCONCEPT Absolute pressure is the total pressure at a given
Eq. (12.6). We have h = 12.0 m and p0 = 1 atm = 1.01 * 105 Pa. point in a fluid. Gauge pressure is the difference between absolute pres-
EXECUTE From Eq. (12.6), the pressures are sure and atmospheric pressure.
absolute: p = p0 + rgh
= 11.01 * 105 Pa2 + 11000 kg>m3219.80 m>s22112.0 m2
= 2.19 * 105 Pa = 2.16 atm = 31.8 lb>in.2

Pressure Gauges
BIO APPLICATION Gauge Pressure
The simplest pressure gauge is the open-tube manometer (Fig. 12.8a). The U-shaped tube of Blood Blood-pressure readings, such as
contains a liquid of density r, often mercury or water. The left end of the tube is con- 130>80, give the maximum and minimum
nected to the container where the pressure p is to be measured, and the right end is open gauge pressures in the arteries, measured
to the atmosphere at pressure p0 = patm . The pressure at the bottom of the tube due to the in mm Hg or torr. Blood pressure varies
with vertical position within the body; the
fluid in the left column is p + rgy1 , and the pressure at the bottom due to the fluid in the standard reference point is the upper arm,
right column is patm + rgy2 . These pressures are measured at the same level, so they must level with the heart.
be equal:

p + rgy1 = patm + rgy2

(12.8)
p - patm = rg1y2 - y12 = rgh

In Eq. (12.8), p is the absolute pressure, and the difference p - patm between absolute and
atmospheric pressure is the gauge pressure. Thus the gauge pressure is proportional to the
difference in height h = y2 - y1 of the liquid columns.
Another common pressure gauge is the mercury barometer. It consists of a long glass
tube, closed at one end, that has been filled with mercury and then inverted in a dish of
mercury (Fig. 12.8b). The space above the mercury column contains only mercury vapor;

(a) Open-tube manometer (b) Mercury barometer Figure 12.8 Two types of pressure gauge.
p0 = patm There is a near-vacuum p0 = 0
at the top of the tube.

The height to
which the
h = y 2 - y1 mercury rises
depends on the
atmospheric
pressure exerted
Pressure p y2 h = y2 - y1
on the mercury
y2
in the dish.

y1
p = patm

p + rgy1 patm + rgy2 y1

The pressure is the same at

the bottoms of the two tubes.
372    CHAPTER 12 Fluid Mechanics

Figure 12.9 (a) A Bourdon pressure gauge. When the pressure inside the flexible tube increases,
the tube straightens out a little, deflecting the attached pointer. (b) This Bourdon-type pressure
gauge is connected to a high-pressure gas line. The gauge pressure shown is just over 5 bars
11 bar = 105 Pa2.
(a) (b)

Changes in the inlet pressure cause the tube

to coil or uncoil, which moves the pointer.
Flexible pressure
tube

Inlet

Pressure p
being measured

its pressure is negligibly small, so the pressure p0 at the top of the mercury column is
practically zero. From Eq. (12.6),
patm = p = 0 + rg1y2 - y12 = rgh (12.9)

So the height h of the mercury column indicates the atmospheric pressure patm.
Pressures are often described in terms of the height of the corresponding mercury column,
as so many “inches of mercury” or “millimeters of mercury” (abbreviated mm Hg). A pres-
sure of 1 mm Hg is called 1 torr, after Evangelista Torricelli, inventor of the mercury barom-
eter. But these units depend on the density of mercury, which varies with temperature, and
on the value of g, which varies with location, so the pascal is the preferred unit of pressure.
Many types of pressure gauges use a flexible sealed tube (Fig. 12.9). A change in the
pressure either inside or outside the tube causes a change in its dimensions. This change is
detected optically, electrically, or mechanically.

EXAMPLE 12.4 A tale of two fluids WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

A manometer tube is partially filled with water. Oil (which does not EXECUTE Writing Eq. (12.6) for each fluid gives
mix with water) is poured into the left arm of the tube until the oil–
water interface is at the midpoint of the tube as shown in Fig. 12.10. p = p0 + rwater ghwater
Both arms of the tube are open to the air. Find a relationship between p = p0 + roil ghoil
the heights hoil and hwater .
IDENTIFY and SET UP Figure 12.10 shows our sketch. The relation- Since the pressure p at the bottom of the tube is the same for both flu-
ship between pressure and depth given by Eq. (12.6) applies to fluids of ids, we set these two expressions equal to each other and solve for hoil
uniform density only; we have two fluids of different densities, so we in terms of hwater :
must write a separate pressure–depth relationship for each. Both fluid
columns have pressure p at the bottom (where they are in contact and in rwater
hoil = h
equilibrium), and both are at atmospheric pressure p0 at the top (where roil water
both are in contact with and in equilibrium with the air).
EVALUATE Water 1rwater = 1000 kg>m32 is denser than oil 1roil ≈
Figure 12.10 Our sketch for this problem.
850 kg>m32, so hoil is greater than hwater as Fig. 12.10 shows. It takes a
greater height of low-density oil to produce the same pressure p at the
bottom of the tube.

KEYCONCEPT The pressure is the same at all points at the same

level in a fluid at rest. This is true even if the fluid contains different
substances with different densities.
 12.3  Buoyancy    373

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 12.2 Mercury is less dense at high tempera-
tures than at low temperatures. Suppose you move a mercury barometer from the cold interior of
a tightly sealed refrigerator to outdoors on a hot summer day. You find that the column of mercury
remains at the same height in the tube. Compared to the air pressure inside the refrigerator, is the
air pressure outdoors (i) higher, (ii) lower, or (iii) the same? (Ignore the very small change in the
dimensions of the glass tube due to the temperature change.)

ANSWER
refrigerator.
cury column remains the same. Hence the air pressure must be lower outdoors than inside the
barometer is taken out of the refrigerator, the density r decreases while the height h of the mer-
❙ (ii) From Eq. (12.9), the pressure outside the barometer is equal to the product rgh. When the

12.3 BUOYANCY
An object immersed in water seems to weigh less than when it is in air. When the object is
less dense than the fluid, it floats. The human body usually floats in water, and a helium-
filled balloon floats in air. These are examples of buoyancy, a phenomenon described by
Archimedes’s principle:

ARCHIMEDES’S PRINCIPLE When an object is completely or partially

­immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force on the object equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

To prove this principle, we consider an arbitrary element of fluid at rest. The dashed curve
in Fig. 12.11a outlines such an element. The arrows labeled dF# represent the forces ex-
erted on the element’s surface by the surrounding fluid.
The entire fluid is in equilibrium, so the sum of all the y-components of force on this
element of fluid is zero. Hence the sum of the y-components of the surface forces must
be an upward force equal in magnitude to the weight mg of the fluid inside the surface.
Also, the sum of the torques on the element of fluid must be zero, so the line of action of
the resultant y-component of surface force must pass through the center of gravity of this
element of fluid.
Now we replace the fluid inside the surface with a solid object that has exactly the
same shape (Fig. 12.11b). The pressure at every point is the same as before. So the total
upward force exerted on the object by the fluid is also the same, again equal in magnitude
to the weight mg of the fluid displaced to make way for the object. We call this upward
force the buoyant force on the solid object. The line of action of the buoyant force again
passes through the center of gravity of the displaced fluid (which doesn’t necessarily coin-
cide with the center of gravity of the object).
When a balloon floats in equilibrium in air, its weight (including the gas inside it)
must be the same as the weight of the air displaced by the balloon. A fish’s flesh is ?
denser than water, yet many fish can float while submerged. These fish have a gas-filled
cavity within their bodies, which makes the fish’s average density the same as water’s.

(a) Arbitrary element of fluid in equilibrium (b) Fluid element replaced with solid object Figure 12.11 Archimedes’s principle.
of the same size and shape

The forces due to

dF# dF The forces on the dF# dF
dF# dF# pressure are the
# fluid element due #
same, so the object
dF# to pressure must dF# dF#
B B must be acted upon
cg sum to a buoyant cg
wfluid wobject by the same buoyant
dF# force equal in
force as the fluid
dF# magnitude to the dF# dF#
dF# element, regardless
dF# element’s weight. dF#
of the object’s weight.
374    CHAPTER 12 Fluid Mechanics

Figure 12.12 Measuring the density of a So the net weight of the fish is the same as the weight of the water it displaces. An object
fluid. whose average density is less than that of a liquid can float partially submerged at the free
(b) Using a hydrometer to upper surface of the liquid. A ship made of steel (which is much denser than water) can
measure the density of float because the ship is hollow, with air occupying much of its interior volume, so its av-
battery acid or antifreeze
erage density is less than that of water. The greater the density of the liquid, the less of the
object is submerged. When you swim in seawater (density 1030 kg>m3), your body floats
higher than in freshwater 11000 kg>m32.
(a) A simple A practical example of buoyancy is the hydrometer, used to measure the density of
hydrometer liquids (Fig. 12.12a). The calibrated float sinks into the fluid until the weight of the fluid
The depth to which the it displaces is exactly equal to its own weight. The hydrometer floats higher in denser
weighted scale sinks tells liquids than in less dense liquids, and a scale in the top stem permits direct density read-
you the density of the fluid. ings. Hydrometers like this are used in medical diagnosis to measure the density of urine
(which depends on a patient’s level of hydration). Figure 12.12b shows a type of hydrom-
eter used to measure the density of battery acid or antifreeze. The bottom of the large tube
is immersed in the liquid; the bulb is squeezed to expel air and is then released, like a
giant medicine dropper. The liquid rises into the outer tube, and the hydrometer floats in
this liquid.

   CAUTION    The buoyant force depends on the fluid density The buoyant force on an object is pro-
portional to the density of the fluid in which the object is immersed, not the density of the object. If a
wooden block and an iron block have the same volume and both are submerged in water, both expe-
rience the same buoyant force. The wooden block rises and the iron block sinks because this buoyant
force is greater than the weight of the wooden block but less than the weight of the iron block. ❙
The weight at the bottom makes the
scale float upright.

EXAMPLE 12.5 Buoyancy WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

A 15.0 kg solid gold statue is raised from the sea bottom (Fig. 12.13a). EXECUTE (a) To find Bsw, we first find the statue’s volume V by using
What is the tension in the hoisting cable (assumed massless) when the the density of gold from Table 12.1:
statue is (a) at rest and completely underwater and (b) at rest and com-
mstatue 15.0 kg
pletely out of the water? V = = = 7.77 * 10-4 m3
rgold 19.3 * 103 kg>m3
IDENTIFY and SET UP In both cases the statue is in equilibrium and ex-
periences three forces: its weight, the cable tension, and a buoyant force The buoyant force Bsw equals the weight of this same volume of seawa-
equal in magnitude to the weight of the fluid displaced by the statue ter. Using Table 12.1 again:
(seawater in part (a), air in part (b)). Figure 12.13b shows the free-body Bsw = wsw = mswg = rswVg
diagram for the statue. Our target variables are the values of the tension
in seawater 1Tsw2 and in air 1Tair2. We are given the mass mstatue , and we = 11.03 * 103 kg>m3217.77 * 10-4 m3219.80 m>s22
can calculate the buoyant force in seawater 1Bsw2 and in air 1Bair2 by = 7.84 N
using Archimedes’s principle.
The statue is at rest, so the net external force acting on it is zero.
From Fig. 12.13b,
gFy = Bsw + Tsw + 1-mstatue g2 = 0
Figure 12.13 What is the tension in the cable hoisting the statue?
(a) Immersed statue in equilibrium (b) Free-body diagram of statue
y Tsw = mstatue g - Bsw = 115.0 kg219.80 m>s22 - 7.84 N
= 147 N - 7.84 N = 139 N

T A spring scale attached to the upper end of the cable will indicate a ten-
sion 7.84 N less than the statue’s actual weight mstatue g = 147 N.
(b) The density of air is about 1.2 kg>m3, so the buoyant force of air
on the statue is
B
x
Bair = rairVg
= 11.2 kg>m3217.77 * 10-4 m3219.80 m>s22
= 9.1 * 10-3 N
This is negligible compared to the statue’s actual weight mstatue g = 147 N.
mg = 147 N So within the precision of our data, the tension in the cable with the
statue in air is Tair = mstatue g = 147 N.
 12.3  Buoyancy    375

EVALUATE The denser the fluid, the greater the buoyant force and the KEYCONCEPT The buoyant force on an object immersed in a fluid
smaller the cable tension. If the fluid had the same density as the statue, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the object displaces (Archimedes’s
the buoyant force would be equal to the statue’s weight and the tension principle). The greater the density of the fluid, the greater the buoyant
would be zero (the cable would go slack). If the fluid were denser than force that the fluid exerts.
the statue, the tension would be negative: The buoyant force would be
greater than the statue’s weight, and a downward force would be re-
quired to keep the statue from rising upward.

Surface Tension Figure 12.14 The surface of the water

acts like a membrane under tension, allow-
We’ve seen that if an object is less dense than water, it will float partially submerged. ing this water strider to “walk on water.”
But a paper clip can rest atop a water surface even though its density is several times that
of water. This is an example of surface tension: The surface of the liquid behaves like
a membrane under tension (Fig. 12.14). Surface tension arises because the molecules
of the liquid exert attractive forces on each other. There is zero net force on a mole-
cule within the interior of the liquid, but a surface molecule is drawn into the interior
(Fig. 12.15). Thus the liquid tends to minimize its surface area, just as a stretched
­membrane does.
Surface tension explains why raindrops are spherical (not teardrop-shaped): A sphere
has a smaller surface area for its volume than any other shape. It also explains why hot,
soapy water is used for washing. To wash clothing thoroughly, water must be forced
through the tiny spaces between the fibers (Fig. 12.16). This requires increasing the sur-
face area of the water, which is difficult to achieve because of surface tension. The job is Figure 12.15 A molecule at the surface
made easier by increasing the temperature of the water and adding soap, both of which of a liquid is attracted into the bulk liquid,
which tends to reduce the liquid’s surface
decrease the surface tension. area.
Surface tension is important for a millimeter-sized water drop, which has a rela-
Molecules in a liquid are attracted by
tively large surface area for its volume. (A sphere of radius r has surface area 4pr 2
neighboring molecules.
and volume 14p>32r 3. The ratio of surface area to volume is 3>r, which increases with
decreasing radius.) But for large quantities of liquid, the ratio of surface area to volume At the surface, the unbal-
is relatively small, and surface tension is negligible compared to pressure forces. For the anced attractions cause Water molecules
the surface to resist
remainder of this chapter, we’ll consider only fluids in bulk and ignore the effects of
being stretched.
surface tension.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 12.3 You Figure 12.17 How does the
place a container of seawater on a scale and note the reading on scale reading change when the
the scale. You now suspend the statue of Example 12.5 in the statue is immersed in water?
water (Fig. 12.17). How does the scale reading change? (i) It
increases by 7.84 N; (ii) it decreases by 7.84 N; (iii) it remains
the same; (iv) none of these. Molecules in the
interior are equally
attracted in all
directions.

Figure 12.16 Surface tension makes it

difficult to force water through small crev-
ANSWER
and container. ices. The required water pressure p can be
downward force on the water, making the scale reading 7.84 N greater than the weight of water reduced by using hot, soapy water, which
water exerts an upward buoyant force of 7.84 N on the statue, so the statue must exert an equal has less surface tension.
is immersed, so the scale reading F must increase by 7.84 N. An alternative viewpoint is that the
the same in both cases. But we saw in Example 12.5 that T decreases by 7.84 N when the statue Water pressure p
the tension T and the upward force F of the scale on the container (equal to the scale reading), is
system does not depend on whether the statue is immersed. The total supporting force, including
Fibers
Air pressure p 0
❙ (i) Consider the water, the statue, and the container together as a system; the total weight of the
376    CHAPTER 12 Fluid Mechanics

Figure 12.18 A flow tube bounded by Figure 12.19 Laminar flow around Figure 12.20 The flow of smoke rising
flow lines. In steady flow, fluid cannot an obstacle. from this burnt match is laminar up to a
cross the walls of a flow tube. certain point, and then becomes turbulent.

Turbulent flow

Area A
Flow lines

Flow tube

Dark-colored dye follows Laminar flow

streamlines of laminar flow
(flow is from left to right).

12.4 FLUID FLOW

We are now ready to consider motion of a fluid. Fluid flow can be extremely complex, as
shown by the currents in river rapids or the swirling flames of a campfire. But we can rep-
resent some situations by relatively simple idealized models. An ideal fluid is a fluid that
is incompressible (that is, its density cannot change) and has no internal friction (called
viscosity). Liquids are approximately incompressible in most situations, and we may also
treat a gas as incompressible if the pressure differences from one region to another are
not too great. Internal friction in a fluid causes shear stresses when two adjacent layers of
fluid move relative to each other, as when fluid flows inside a tube or around an obstacle.
In some cases we can ignore these shear forces in comparison with forces arising from
gravitation and pressure differences.
The path of an individual particle in a moving fluid is called a flow line. In steady
flow, the overall flow pattern does not change with time, so every element passing through
a given point follows the same flow line. In this case the “map” of the fluid velocities at
various points in space remains constant, although the velocity of a particular particle
may change in both magnitude and direction during its motion. A streamline is a curve
whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the fluid velocity at that point. When the
flow pattern changes with time, the streamlines do not coincide with the flow lines. We’ll
consider only steady-flow situations, for which flow lines and streamlines are identical.
Figure 12.21 A flow tube with changing The flow lines passing through the edge of an imaginary element of area, such as area A
cross-sectional area.
in Fig. 12.18, form a tube called a flow tube. From the definition of a flow line, in steady
v2
If fluid is incompressible,
flow no fluid can cross the side walls of a given flow tube.
same fluid volume dV Figure 12.19 shows the pattern of fluid flow from left to right around an obstacle. The
exits flow tube at photograph was made by injecting dye into water flowing between two closely spaced
upper end as A2 dV
glass plates. This pattern is typical of laminar flow, in which adjacent layers of fluid slide
enters it at
lower end. ds2
smoothly past each other and the flow is steady. (A lamina is a thin sheet.) At sufficiently
= v2 dt high flow rates, or when boundary surfaces cause abrupt changes in velocity, the flow
can become irregular and chaotic. This is called turbulent flow (Fig. 12.20). In turbulent
flow there is no steady-state pattern; the flow pattern changes continuously.

The Continuity Equation

v1 The mass of a moving fluid doesn’t change as it flows. This leads to an important relation-
ship called the continuity equation. Consider a portion of a flow tube between two sta-
dV
A1 tionary cross sections with areas A1 and A2 (Fig. 12.21). The fluid speeds at these sections
are v1 and v2 , respectively. As we mentioned above, no fluid flows in or out across the
ds1
= v1 dt side walls of such a tube. During a small time interval dt, the fluid at A1 moves a distance
If fluid is incompressible, product Av
ds1 = v1 dt, so a cylinder of fluid with height v1 dt and volume dV1 = A1 v1 dt flows into
(tube area times speed) has same value at the tube across A1 . During this same interval, a cylinder of volume dV2 = A2 v2 dt flows
all points along tube. out of the tube across A2 .
 12.4  Fluid Flow    377

Let’s first consider the case of an incompressible fluid so that the density r has the
same value at all points. The mass dm1 flowing into the tube across A1 in time dt is
dm1 = rA1 v1 dt. Similarly, the mass dm2 that flows out across A2 in the same time is
dm2 = rA2 v2 dt. In steady flow the total mass in the tube is constant, so dm1 = dm2 and

rA1 v1 dt = rA2 v2 dt or

Cross-sectional area of flow tube

Continuity equation at two points (see Fig. 12.21)
for an incompressible fluid: A1v1 = A2v2 (12.10)
Speed of flow at the two points

The product Av is the volume flow rate dV>dt, the rate at which volume crosses a section
of the tube: Figure 12.22 The continuity equation,
Eq. (12.10), helps explain the shape of a
Volume flow rate dV Cross-sectional area of flow tube stream of honey poured from a spoon.
of a fluid = Av (12.11)
As the honey
dt Speed of flow
falls, its flow
speed v
The mass flow rate is the mass flow per unit time through a cross section. This is equal to increases ...
the density r times the volume flow rate dV>dt. v1
Equation (12.10) shows that the volume flow rate has the same value at all points along ... and the
stream’s
any flow tube (Fig. 12.22). When the cross section of a flow tube decreases, the speed in- cross-sectional
creases, and vice versa. A broad, deep part of a river has a larger cross section and slower area A
current than a narrow, shallow part, but the volume flow rates are the same in both. This decreases.
is the essence of the familiar maxim, “Still waters run deep.” If a water pipe with 2 cm
diameter is connected to a pipe with 1 cm diameter, the flow speed is four times as great
in the 1 cm part as in the 2 cm part.
v2
We can generalize Eq. (12.10) for the case in which the fluid is not incompressible. If
r1 and r2 are the densities at sections 1 and 2, then

r1 A1 v1 = r2 A2 v2 (continuity equation, compressible fluid) (12.12)

If the fluid is denser at point 2 than at point 1 1r2 7 r12, the volume flow rate at point 2
will be less than at point 1 1A2 v2 6 A1 v12. We leave the details to you. If the fluid is in- The volume flow rate dV>dt = Av
compressible so that r1 and r2 are always equal, Eq. (12.12) reduces to Eq. (12.10). remains constant.

EXAMPLE 12.6 Flow of an incompressible fluid

Incompressible oil of density 850 kg>m3 is pumped through a cylindri- The mass flow rate is r dV>dt = 1850 kg>m3219.5 * 10-3 m3>s2
cal pipe at a rate of 9.5 liters per second. (a) The first section of the pipe = 8.1 kg>s.
has a diameter of 8.0 cm. What is the flow speed of the oil? What is (b) From the continuity equation, Eq. (12.10),
the mass flow rate? (b) The second section of the pipe has a diameter
of 4.0 cm. What are the flow speed and mass flow rate in that section? A1 p14.0 * 10-2 m2 2
v2 = v1 = 11.9 m>s2 = 7.6 m>s = 4v1
IDENTIFY and SET UP Since the oil is incompressible, the volume flow A2 p12.0 * 10-2 m2 2
rate has the same value 19.5 L>s2 in both sections of pipe. The mass
flow rate (the density times the volume flow rate) also has the same The volume and mass flow rates are the same as in part (a).
value in both sections. (This is just the statement that no fluid is lost or
added anywhere along the pipe.) We use the volume flow rate equation, EVALUATE The second section of pipe has one-half the diameter and
Eq. (12.11), to determine the speed v1 in the 8.0-cm-diameter section one-fourth the cross-sectional area of the first section. Hence the speed
and the continuity equation for incompressible flow, Eq. (12.10), to find must be four times greater in the second section, which is just what our
the speed v2 in the 4.0-cm-diameter section. result shows.
EXECUTE (a) From Eq. (12.11) the volume flow rate in the first sec-
tion is dV>dt = A1v1, where A1 is the cross-sectional area of the pipe of KEYCONCEPT The continuity equation states that as an incom-
diameter 8.0 cm and radius 4.0 cm. Hence pressible fluid moves through a flow tube, the volume flow rate (the
flow tube’s cross-sectional area times the flow speed) is the same at all
dV>dt 19.5 L>s2110-3 m3>L2 points along the flow tube. The narrower the flow tube, the faster the
v1 = = = 1.9 m>s
A1 p14.0 * 10-2 m2 2 flow speed.
378    CHAPTER 12 Fluid Mechanics

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 12.4 A maintenance crew is working on a

section of a three-lane highway, leaving only one lane open to traffic. The result is much slower
traffic flow (a traffic jam). Do cars on a highway behave like the molecules of (i) an incompressible
fluid or (ii) a compressible fluid?

ANSWER
pass a point on the highway (the “volume flow rate” decreases).
compressible fluid: They end up packed closer (the “density” increases) and fewer cars per second
per second passing a point on the highway) the same. In real life cars behave like the molecules of a
same but the cars would triple their speed. This would keep the “volume flow rate” (number of cars
the cars encountered the one-lane section, the spacing between cars (the “density”) would stay the
rows to one-third of its value. If cars behaved like the molecules of an incompressible fluid, then as
❙ (ii) A highway that narrows from three lanes to one is like a pipe whose cross-sectional area nar-

12.5 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

According to the continuity equation, the speed of fluid flow can vary along the paths
of the fluid. The pressure can also vary; it depends on height as in the static situation
(see Section 12.2), and it also depends on the speed of flow. We can derive an impor-
tant relationship called Bernoulli’s equation, which relates the pressure, flow speed, and
height for flow of an ideal, incompressible fluid. Bernoulli’s equation is useful in analyz-
ing many kinds of fluid flow.
The dependence of pressure on speed follows from the continuity equation, Eq. (12.10).
When an incompressible fluid flows along a flow tube with varying cross section, its
speed must change, and so an element of fluid must have an acceleration. If the tube is
horizontal, the force that causes this acceleration has to be applied by the surrounding
fluid. This means that the pressure must be different in regions of different cross section;
if it were the same everywhere, the net force on every fluid element would be zero. When
a horizontal flow tube narrows and a fluid element speeds up, it must be moving toward a
region of lower pressure in order to have a net forward force to accelerate it. If the eleva-
tion also changes, this causes an additional pressure difference.

Deriving Bernoulli’s Equation

Figure 12.23 Deriving Bernoulli’s To derive Bernoulli’s equation, we apply the work–energy theorem to the fluid in a sec-
e­ quation. The net work done on a fluid tion of a flow tube. In Fig. 12.23 we consider the element of fluid that at some initial time
element by the pressure of the s­ urrounding
lies between the two cross sections a and c. The speeds at the lower and upper ends are
fluid equals the change in the kinetic
­energy plus the change in the gravitational v1 and v2 . In a small time interval dt, the fluid that is initially at a moves to b, a distance
­potential energy. ds1 = v1 dt, and the fluid that is initially at c moves to d, a distance ds2 = v2 dt. The
v2 cross-sectional areas at the two ends are A1 and A2 , as shown. The fluid is incompressible;
d p2A2 hence by the continuity equation, Eq. (12.10), the volume of fluid dV passing any cross
c section during time dt is the same. That is, dV = A1 ds1 = A2 ds2 .
A2 dV Let’s compute the work done on this fluid element during dt. If there is negligible inter-
nal friction in the fluid (i.e., no viscosity), the only nongravitational forces that do work on
ds2 the element are due to the pressure of the surrounding fluid. The pressures at the two ends
are p1 and p2 ; the force on the cross section at a is p1 A1 , and the force at c is p2 A2 . The net
work dW done on the element by the surrounding fluid during this displacement is therefore

Flow dW = p1A1 ds1 - p2A2 ds2 = 1p1 - p22dV (12.13)

v1 b
The term p2A2 ds2 has a negative sign because the force at c opposes the displacement of
a y2 the fluid.
dV The work dW is due to forces other than the conservative force of gravity, so it equals the
A1
p1A1 change in the total mechanical energy (kinetic energy plus gravitational potential energy)
ds1 associated with the fluid element. The mechanical energy for the fluid between sections b
and c does not change. At the beginning of dt the fluid between a and b has volume A1 ds1 ,
y1
mass rA1 ds1 , and kinetic energy 12 r1A1 ds12v12. At the end of dt the fluid between c and d
has kinetic energy 12 r1A2 ds22v22. The net change in kinetic energy dK during time dt is

dK = 12 r dV1v22 - v122 (12.14)

 12.5  Bernoulli’s Equation    379

What about the change in gravitational potential energy? At the beginning of time in-
BIO APPLICATION Why Healthy
terval dt, the potential energy for the mass between a and b is dm gy1 = r dV gy1 . At the Giraffes Have High Blood Pressure
end of dt, the potential energy for the mass between c and d is dm gy2 = r dV gy2 . The net Bernoulli’s equation suggests that as blood
change in potential energy dU during dt is flows upward at roughly constant speed v
from the heart to the brain, the pressure p
dU = r dV g1y2 - y12(12.15) will drop as the blood’s height y increases.
For blood to reach the brain with the
­required minimal pressure, the human
Combining Eqs. (12.13), (12.14), and (12.15) in the energy equation dW = dK + dU,
heart provides a maximum (systolic) gauge
we obtain pressure of about 120 mm Hg. The verti-
cal distance from heart to brain is much
1p1 - p22dV = 12 r dV1v22 - v122 + r dV g1y2 - y12 larger for a giraffe, so its heart must
(12.16) produce a much greater maximum gauge
p1 - p2 = 12 r1v22 - v122 + rg1y2 - y12  pressure (about 280 mm Hg).

This is Bernoulli’s equation. It states that the work done on a unit volume of fluid by
the surrounding fluid is equal to the sum of the changes in kinetic and potential energies
per unit volume that occur during the flow. We may also interpret Eq. (12.16) in terms of
pressures. The first term on the right is the pressure difference associated with the change
of speed of the fluid. The second term on the right is the additional pressure difference
caused by the weight of the fluid and the difference in elevation of the two ends.
We can also express Eq. (12.16) in a more convenient form as

p1 + rgy1 + 12 rv12 = p2 + rgy2 + 12 rv22(12.17)

Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to any two points along the flow tube, so we can write

Pressure Fluid density Value is same at all

points in flow tube.
Bernoulli’s equation
for an ideal, p + rgy + 12 rv2 = constant (12.18)
incompressible fluid:
Acceleration Elevation Flow speed
due to gravity

Note that when the fluid is not moving (so v1 = v2 = 0), Eq. (12.17) reduces to the pres-
sure relationship we derived for a fluid at rest, Eq. (12.5).

   CAUTION    Bernoulli’s equation applies in certain situations only We stress again that Bernoulli’s
equation is valid for only incompressible, steady flow of a fluid with no internal friction (no viscosity).
It’s a simple equation, but don’t be tempted to use it in situations in which it doesn’t apply! ❙

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 12.1 Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli’s equation is derived from the work–energy theorem, so 3. List the unknown and known quantities in Eq. (12.17). Decide
much of Problem-Solving Strategy 7.1 (Section 7.1) applies here. which unknowns are the target variables.
IDENTIFY the relevant concepts: Bernoulli’s equation is applicable EXECUTE the solution as follows: Write Bernoulli’s equation and
to steady flow of an incompressible fluid that has no internal friction solve for the unknowns. You may need the continuity equation,
(see Section 12.6). It is generally applicable to flows through large Eq. (12.10), to relate the two speeds in terms of cross-sectional areas
pipes and to flows within bulk fluids (e.g., air flowing around an air- of pipes or containers. You may also need Eq. (12.11) to find the vol-
plane or water flowing around a fish). ume flow rate.
SET UP the problem using the following steps: EVALUATE your answer: Verify that the results make physical sense.
1. Identify the points 1 and 2 referred to in Bernoulli’s equation, Check that you have used consistent units: In SI units, pressure is in
Eq. (12.17). pascals, density in kilograms per cubic meter, and speed in meters
per second. The pressures must be either all absolute pressures or all
2. Define your coordinate system, particularly the level at which gauge pressures.
y = 0. Take the positive y-direction to be upward.
380    CHAPTER 12 Fluid Mechanics

EXAMPLE 12.7 Water pressure in the home WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

Water enters a house (Fig. 12.24) through a pipe with an inside diam- pipe diameters at points 1 and 2, from which we calculate the areas A1 and
eter of 2.0 cm at an absolute pressure of 4.0 * 105 Pa (about 4 atm). A A2 , as well as the speed v1 = 1.5 m>s and pressure p1 = 4.0 * 105 Pa at
1.0-cm-diameter pipe leads to the second-floor bathroom 5.0 m above. the inlet pipe. We take y1 = 0 and y2 = 5.0 m. We find the speed v2 from
When the flow speed at the inlet pipe is 1.5 m>s, find the flow speed, the continuity equation and the pressure p2 from Bernoulli’s equation.
pressure, and volume flow rate in the bathroom. Knowing v2, we calculate the volume flow rate v2 A2.
IDENTIFY and SET UP We assume that the water flows at a steady rate. EXECUTE From the continuity equation, Eq. (12.10),
Water is effectively incompressible, so we can use the continuity equation.
It’s reasonable to ignore internal friction because the pipe has a relatively A1 p11.0 cm2 2
large diameter, so we can also use Bernoulli’s equation. Let points 1 and 2 v2 = v1 = 11.5 m>s2 = 6.0 m>s
A2 p10.50 cm2 2
be at the inlet pipe and at the bathroom, respectively. We are given the
From Bernoulli’s equation, Eq. (12.16),
Figure 12.24 What is the water pressure in the second-story bath- p2 = p1 - 12 r1v22 - v122 - rg1y2 - y12
room of this house?
= 4.0 * 105 Pa - 1211.0 * 103 kg>m32136 m2>s2 - 2.25 m2>s22

- 11.0 * 103 kg>m3219.8 m>s2215.0 m2

= 4.0 * 105 Pa - 0.17 * 105 Pa - 0.49 * 105 Pa

= 3.3 * 105 Pa = 3.3 atm = 48 lb>in.2

2 The volume flow rate is

To second
floor dV
(1.0 cm pipe) = A2 v2 = p10.50 * 10-2 m2 216.0 m>s2
dt

5.0 m
= 4.7 * 10-4 m3>s = 0.47 L>s

EVALUATE This is a reasonable flow rate for a bathroom faucet or

shower. Note that if the water is turned off, both v1 and v2 are zero, the
term 12 r1v22 - v122 in Bernoulli’s equation vanishes, and p2 rises from
Water 3.3 * 105 Pa to 3.5 * 105 Pa.
meter
Hot-water
1 From water KEYCONCEPT Bernoulli’s equation allows you to relate the flow
tank supply speeds at two different points in a fluid to the pressures and heights at
(2.0 cm pipe) those two points.

EXAMPLE 12.8 Speed of efflux WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

Figure 12.25 shows a gasoline storage tank with cross-sectional area Figure 12.25 Calculating the speed of efflux for gasoline flowing out
A1, filled to a depth h. The space above the gasoline contains air at the bottom of a storage tank.
pressure p0 , and the gasoline flows out the bottom of the tank through
a short pipe with cross-sectional area A2 . Derive expressions for the
flow speed in the pipe and the volume flow rate.
p0
IDENTIFY and SET UP We consider the entire volume of moving liquid 1 A1
as a single flow tube of an incompressible fluid with negligible internal
friction. Hence, we can use Bernoulli’s equation. Points 1 and 2 are at
the surface of the gasoline and at the exit pipe, respectively. At point 1 h
the pressure is p0, which we assume to be fixed; at point 2 it is atmo-
spheric pressure patm. We take y = 0 at the exit pipe, so y1 = h and
y2 = 0. Because A1 is very much larger than A2, the upper surface of
the gasoline will drop very slowly and so y1 is essentially zero. We find A2
2
v2 from Eq. (12.17) and the volume flow rate from Eq. (12.11). patm

EXECUTE We apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 and 2:

Using v1 = 0, we find
1 2 1 2
p0 + 2 rv1 + rgh = patm + 2 rv2+ rg102 p0 - patm
v2 = 2a b + 2gh
p0 - patm B r
v22 = v12 + 2a b + 2gh
r From Eq. (12.11), the volume flow rate is dV>dt = v2 A2.
 12.5  Bernoulli’s Equation    381

EVALUATE The speed v2, sometimes called the speed of efflux, depends Torricelli’s theorem. It is valid also for a hole in a side wall at a depth h
on both the pressure difference 1p0 - patm2 and the height h of the liq- below the surface. If p0 = patm , the volume flow rate is
uid level in the tank. If the top of the tank is vented to the atmosphere,
p0 = patm and p0 - patm = 0. Then dV
= A2 22gh
dt
v2 = 22gh

That is, the speed of efflux from an opening at a distance h below KEYCONCEPT When solving problems about the flow of an in-
the top surface of the liquid is the same as the speed an object would compressible fluid with negligible internal friction, you can use both
acquire in falling freely through a height h. This result is called Bernoulli’s equation and the continuity equation.

EXAMPLE 12.9 The Venturi meter WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

Figure 12.26 shows a Venturi meter, used to measure flow speed in a From the continuity equation, v2 = 1A1>A22v1. Substituting this and re-
pipe. Derive an expression for the flow speed v1 in terms of the cross- arranging, we get
sectional areas A1 and A2. A1 2
p1 - p2 = 12 rv12 c a b - 1d
IDENTIFY and SET UP The flow is steady, and we assume the fluid is A2
incompressible and has negligible internal friction. Hence we can apply
From Eq. (12.6), the pressure difference p1 - p2 is also equal to
Bernoulli’s equation to the wide part (point 1) and narrow part (point 2,
rgh. Substituting this and solving for v1, we get
the throat) of the pipe. Equation (12.6) relates h to the pressure differ-
ence p1 - p2.
2gh
EXECUTE Points 1 and 2 have the same vertical coordinate y1 = y2, so v1 =
B 1A1>A22 2 - 1
Eq. (12.17) says
p1 + 12 rv12 = p2 + 12 rv22 EVALUATE Because A1 is greater than A2, v2 is greater than v1 and the
pressure p2 in the throat is less than p1. Those pressure differences pro-
Figure 12.26 The Venturi meter. duce a net force to the right that makes the fluid speed up as it enters the
Difference in height results from throat, and a net force to the left that slows it as it leaves.
reduced pressure in throat (point 2).
KEYCONCEPT When an incompressible fluid with negligible inter-
nal friction flows through a pipe of varying size, the pressure and flow
h speed both change. Where the cross-sectional area is small, the pressure
is low and the speed is high; where the cross-sectional area is large, the
pressure is high and the speed is low.
v1 v2
1 2 p2
p1
A1 A2

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 12.10 Lift on an airplane wing

Figure 12.27a (next page) shows flow lines around a cross section of a strong wind can turn it inside out. At high speed, lift can reduce trac-
an airplane wing. The flow lines crowd together above the wing, cor- tion on a car’s tires; a “spoiler” at the car’s tail, shaped like an upside-
responding to increased flow speed and reduced pressure, just as in the down wing, provides a compensating downward force.
Venturi throat in Example 12.9. Hence the downward force of the air
on the top side of the wing is less than the upward force of the air on    CAUTION    A misconception about wings Some discussions of lift
the underside of the wing, and there is a net upward force or lift. Lift claim that air travels faster over the top of a wing because “it has
is not simply due to the impulse of air striking the underside of the farther to travel.” This claim assumes that air molecules that part
wing; in fact, the reduced pressure on the upper wing surface makes company at the front of the wing, one traveling over the wing and
the greatest contribution to the lift. (This simplified discussion ignores one under it, must meet again at the wing’s trailing edge. Not so!
the formation of vortices.) Figure 12.27b shows a computer simulation of parcels of air flow-
We can understand the lift force on the basis of momentum changes ing around an airplane wing. Parcels that are adjacent at the front
instead. The vector diagram in Fig. 12.27a shows that there is a net of the wing do not meet at the trailing edge; the flow over the top
downward change in the vertical component of momentum of the air of the wing is much faster than if the parcels had to meet. In accor-
flowing past the wing, corresponding to the downward force the wing dance with Bernoulli’s equation, this faster speed means that there is
exerts on the air. The reaction force on the wing is upward, as we con- even lower pressure above the wing (and hence greater lift) than the
cluded above. “farther-to-travel” claim would suggest. ❙
Similar flow patterns and lift forces are found in the vicinity of any
humped object in a wind. A moderate wind makes an umbrella “float”;
Continued
382    CHAPTER 12 Fluid Mechanics

Figure 12.27 Flow around an airplane wing.

(a) Flow lines around an airplane wing (b) Computer simulation of air parcels flowing around a wing, showing
that air moves much faster over the top than over the bottom
Flow lines are crowded together above the wing, so
flow speed is higher there and pressure is lower.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
S
pi S
pf
Notice that air
S
pi particles that are
S
Wing together at the leading
S ∆ p (air)
pf edge of the wing do
not meet up at the
trailing edge!
Equivalent explanation: Wing imparts a
net downward momentum to the air, so
reaction force on airplane is upward.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

KEYCONCEPT The pressure in a flowing incompressible fluid with

negligible internal friction is low at points where the flow lines are
crowded together, such as above the upper surface of an airplane wing.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 12.5 Which is the most accurate statement
of Bernoulli’s principle? (i) Fast-moving air causes lower pressure; (ii) lower pressure causes fast-
moving air; (iii) both (i) and (ii) are equally accurate.

ANSWER
and change speed.
between those two points experience a force, and this force causes the fluid particles to accelerate
net force. In fluid flow, a pressure difference between two points means that fluid particles moving
❙ (ii) Newton’s second law tells us that an object accelerates (its velocity changes) in response to a

12.6 VISCOSITY AND TURBULENCE

In our discussion of fluid flow we assumed that the fluid had no internal friction and that
the flow was laminar. While these assumptions are often quite valid, in many important
physical situations the effects of viscosity (internal friction) and turbulence (nonlaminar
flow) are extremely important. Let’s take a brief look at some of these situations.

Viscosity
Viscosity is internal friction in a fluid. Viscous forces oppose the motion of one portion of
a fluid relative to another. Viscosity is the reason it takes effort to paddle a canoe through
Figure 12.28 Lava is an example of a calm water, but it is also the reason the paddle works. Viscous effects are important in the
viscous fluid. The viscosity decreases with flow of fluids in pipes, the flow of blood, the lubrication of engine parts, and many other
increasing temperature: The hotter the situations.
lava, the more easily it can flow.
Fluids that flow readily, such as water or gasoline, have smaller viscosities than do
“thick” liquids such as honey or motor oil. Viscosities of all fluids are strongly temperature
dependent, increasing for gases and decreasing for liquids as the temperature increases
(Fig. 12.28). Oils for engine lubrication must flow equally well in cold and warm condi-
tions, and so are designed to have as little temperature variation of viscosity as possible.
A viscous fluid always tends to cling to a solid surface in contact with it. There is always
a thin boundary layer of fluid near the surface, in which the fluid is nearly at rest with
respect to the surface. That’s why dust particles can cling to a fan blade even when it is
rotating rapidly, and why you can’t get all the dirt off your car by just squirting a hose at it.
Viscosity has important effects on the flow of liquids through pipes, including the
flow of blood in the circulatory system. First think about a fluid with zero viscosity so
that we can apply Bernoulli’s equation, Eq. (12.17). If the two ends of a long cylindri-
cal pipe are at the same height 1y1 = y22 and the flow speed is the same at both ends
 12.6  Viscosity and Turbulence    383

1v1 = v22, Bernoulli’s equation tells us that the pressure is the same at both ends of the Figure 12.29 Velocity profile for a
pipe. But this isn’t true if we account for viscosity. To see why, consider Fig. 12.29, viscous fluid in a cylindrical pipe.
which shows the flow-speed profile for laminar flow of a viscous fluid in a long cy- Cross section of a
lindrical pipe. Due to viscosity, the speed is zero at the pipe walls (to which the fluid cylindrical pipe
clings) and is greatest at the center of the pipe. The motion is like a lot of concentric
tubes sliding relative to one another, with the central tube moving fastest and the outer- v vs. r
R
most tube at rest. Viscous forces between the tubes oppose this sliding, so to keep the r
flow going we must apply a greater pressure at the back of the flow than at the front.
That’s why you have to keep squeezing a tube of toothpaste or a packet of ketchup (both
viscous fluids) to keep the fluid coming out of its container. Your fingers provide a pres-
sure at the back of the flow that is far greater than the atmospheric pressure at the front The velocity profile for
viscous fluid flowing in
of the flow.
the pipe has a parabolic shape.
The pressure difference required to sustain a given volume flow rate through a cylin-
drical pipe of length L and radius R turns out to be proportional to L>R4. If we decrease R
by one-half, the required pressure increases by 24 = 16; decreasing R by a factor of 0.90
(a 10% reduction) increases the required pressure difference by a factor of 11>0.902 4 = 1.52
(a 52% increase). This simple relationship explains the connection between a high-
cholesterol diet (which tends to narrow the arteries) and high blood pressure. Due to the
R4 dependence, even a small narrowing of the arteries can result in substantially elevated
blood pressure and added strain on the heart muscle.

Turbulence BIO APPLICATION Listening for

When the speed of a flowing fluid exceeds a certain critical value, the flow is no lon- Turbulent Flow Normal blood flow in
ger laminar. Instead, the flow pattern becomes extremely irregular and complex, and it the human aorta is laminar, but a small
changes continuously with time; there is no steady-state pattern. This irregular, chaotic disturbance such as a heart pathology
can cause the flow to become turbulent.
flow is called turbulence. Figure 12.20 shows the contrast between laminar and turbulent Turbulence makes noise, which is why
flow for smoke rising in air. Bernoulli’s equation is not applicable to regions where turbu- listening to blood flow with a stethoscope
lence occurs because the flow is not steady. is a useful diagnostic technique.
Whether a flow is laminar or turbulent depends in part on the fluid’s viscosity.
The greater the viscosity, the greater the tendency for the fluid to flow in sheets
( laminae) and the more likely the flow is to be laminar. (When we discussed
­
Bernoulli’s equation in Section 12.5, we assumed that the flow was laminar and that
the fluid had zero viscosity. In fact, a little viscosity is needed to ensure that the flow
is laminar.)
For a fluid of a given viscosity, flow speed is a determining factor for the onset of
turbulence. A flow pattern that is stable at low speeds suddenly becomes unstable when a
critical speed is reached. Irregularities in the flow pattern can be caused by roughness in
the pipe wall, variations in the density of the fluid, and many other factors. At low flow
speeds, these disturbances damp out; the flow pattern is stable and tends to maintain its
laminar nature (Fig. 12.30a). When the critical speed is reached, however, the flow pat-
tern becomes unstable. The disturbances no longer damp out but grow until they destroy
the entire laminar-flow pattern (Fig. 12.30b).

Figure 12.30 The flow of water from a faucet can be (a) laminar or (b) turbulent.
(a) Low speed: (b) High speed:
laminar flow turbulent flow
384    CHAPTER 12 Fluid Mechanics

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 12.11 The curve ball

Does a curve ball really curve? Yes, it does, and the reason is turbu- of the situation. A curve ball thrown by a left-handed pitcher spins as
lence. Figure 12.31a shows a nonspinning ball moving through the air shown in Fig. 12.31e and will curve toward a right-handed batter, mak-
from left to right. The flow lines show that to an observer moving with ing it harder to hit.
the ball, the air stream appears to move from right to left. Because of A similar effect occurs when golf balls acquire “backspin” from im-
the high speeds involved (typically near 35 m>s, or 75 mi>h), there is a pact with the grooved, slanted club face. Figure 12.31f shows the back-
region of turbulent flow behind the ball. spin of a golf ball just after impact. The resulting pressure difference
Figure 12.31b shows a spinning ball with “top spin.” Layers of air between the top and bottom of the ball causes a lift force that keeps
near the ball’s surface are pulled around in the direction of the spin the ball in the air longer than would be possible without spin. A well-
by friction between the ball and air and by the air’s internal friction hit drive appears, from the tee, to “float” or even curve upward during
(viscosity). Hence air moves relative to the ball’s surface more slowly at the initial portion of its flight. This is a real effect, not an illusion. The
the top of the ball than at the bottom, and turbulence occurs farther for- dimples on the golf ball play an essential role; the viscosity of air gives
ward on the top side than on the bottom. As a result, the average pres- a dimpled ball a much longer trajectory than an undimpled one with the
sure at the top of the ball is now greater than that at the bottom, and the same initial velocity and spin.
resulting net force deflects the ball downward (Fig. 12.31c). “Top spin”
is used in tennis to keep a fast serve in the court (Fig. 12.31d). KEYCONCEPT Even in a fluid with low viscosity (that is, little in-
In baseball, a curve ball spins about a nearly vertical axis and the ternal friction) such as air, the effects of viscosity can be important for
resulting deflection is sideways. In that case, Fig. 12.31c is a top view determining how that fluid flows around objects.

Figure 12.31 (a)–(e) Analyzing the motion of a spinning ball through the air. (f) Stroboscopic photograph
of a golf ball being struck by a club. The picture was taken at 1000 flashes per second. The ball rotates about
once in eight flashes, corresponding to an angular speed of 125 rev>s, or 7500 rpm. Source: Harold Edgerton
at MIT, copyright 2014. Courtesy of Palm Press, Inc.
(a) Motion of air relative (b) Motion of a spinning ball (c) Force generated when a spinning ball moves through air
to a nonspinning ball
A moving ball drags the adjacent air with
This side of the ball moves it. So, when air moves past a spinning ball:
opposite to the airflow.
vball On one side, the ball slows the air,
creating a region of high pressure.
On the other side, the ball speeds the
air, creating a region of low pressure.
This side moves in the The resultant force points in the direction
direction of the airflow. of the low-pressure side.

(d) Spin pushing a tennis ball downward (e) Spin causing a curve ball to (f) Backspin of a golf ball
be deflected sideways

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 12.6 How much more thumb pressure must
a nurse use to administer an injection with a hypodermic needle of inside diameter 0.30 mm com-
pared to one with inside diameter 0.60 mm? Assume that the two needles have the same length
and that the volume flow rate is the same in both cases. (i) Twice as much; (ii) 4 times as much;
(iii) 8 times as much; (iv) 16 times as much; (v) 32 times as much.
310.60 mm2>10.30 mm24 4 = 24 = 16.
ANSWER
(half the inside diameter). With the smaller-diameter needle, the pressure is greater by a factor of
❙ (iv) The required pressure is proportional to 1>R4, where R is the inside radius of the needle