COURSE MATERIAL

III Year B. Tech II- Semester

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

R18A0319

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(Autonomous Institution-UGC, Govt. of India)
Secunderabad-500100, Telangana State, India.
www.mrcet.ac.in
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CONTENTS

1. Vision, Mission & Quality Policy

2. Pos, PSOs & PEOs

3. Blooms Taxonomy

4. Course Syllabus

5. Lecture Notes (Unit wise)

a. Objectives and outcomes

b. Notes

c. Presentation Material (PPT Slides/ Videos)

d. Industry applications relevant to the concepts covered

e. Question Bank for Assignments

f. Tutorial Questions

6. Previous Question Papers

www.mrcet.ac.in
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)

VISION
❖ To establish a pedestal for the integral innovation, team spirit, originality and
competence in the students, expose them to face the global challenges and become
technology leaders of Indian vision of modern society.

MISSION
❖ To become a model institution in the fields of Engineering, Technology and
Management.
❖ To impart holistic education to the students to render them as industry ready
engineers.
❖ To ensure synchronization of MRCET ideologies with challenging demands of
International Pioneering Organizations.

QUALITY POLICY

❖ To implement best practices in Teaching and Learning process for both UG and PG
courses meticulously.

❖ To provide state of art infrastructure and expertise to impart quality education.

❖ To groom the students to become intellectually creative and professionally

competitive.

❖ To channelize the activities and tune them in heights of commitment and sincerity,
the requisites to claim the never - ending ladder of SUCCESS year after year.

For more information: www.mrcet.ac.in

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering

VISION

To become an innovative knowledge center in mechanical engineering through state-of-

the-art teaching-learning and research practices, promoting creative thinking
professionals.

MISSION

The Department of Mechanical Engineering is dedicated for transforming the students

into highly competent Mechanical engineers to meet the needs of the industry, in a
changing and challenging technical environment, by strongly focusing in the
fundamentals of engineering sciences for achieving excellent results in their professional
pursuits.

Quality Policy

 To pursuit global Standards of excellence in all our endeavors namely teaching,

research and continuing education and to remain accountable in our core and
support functions, through processes of self-evaluation and continuous
improvement.

 To create a midst of excellence for imparting state of art education, industry-

oriented training research in the field of technical education.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO1 Ability to analyze, design and develop Mechanical systems to solve the
Engineering problems by integrating thermal, design and manufacturing Domains.

PSO2 Ability to succeed in competitive examinations or to pursue higher studies or

research.

PSO3 Ability to apply the learned Mechanical Engineering knowledge for the
Development of society and self.

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

The Program Educational Objectives of the program offered by the department are broadly
listed below:

PEO1: PREPARATION

To provide sound foundation in mathematical, scientific and engineering fundamentals

necessary to analyze, formulate and solve engineering problems.

PEO2: CORE COMPETANCE

To provide thorough knowledge in Mechanical Engineering subjects including theoretical

knowledge and practical training for preparing physical models pertaining to Thermodynamics,
Hydraulics, Heat and Mass Transfer, Dynamics of Machinery, Jet Propulsion, Automobile
Engineering, Element Analysis, Production Technology, Mechatronics etc.

PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

To make the students to design, experiment, analyze, interpret in the core field with the help of
other inter disciplinary concepts wherever applicable.

PEO4: CAREER DEVELOPMENT

To inculcate the habit of lifelong learning for career development through successful completion
of advanced degrees, professional development courses, industrial training etc.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering

PEO5: PROFESSIONALISM

To impart technical knowledge, ethical values for professional development of the student to
solve complex problems and to work in multi-disciplinary ambience, whose solutions lead to
significant societal benefits.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Blooms Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for
their students (learning objectives). The terminology has been updated to include the following
six levels of learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure the learning objectives, lessons,
and assessments of a course.

1. Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐ term
memory.
2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through
interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure for executing or implementing.
4. Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to
one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and
attributing.
5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standard through checking and
critiquing.
6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing
elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 B. Tech (MECH) R-18

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

L T/P/D C
III Year B. Tech, ME-II Sem 3 0 3

(R18A0319) COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

Course Objectives:
1. To provide an overview of how computers are being used in design, development of
manufacturing plans and manufacture
2. Understand the Mathematical representations of curves and surfaces used in
geometric construction.
3. Understand the Mathematical representations of solids used in geometric
construction.
4. Understand the transformation of 2D and 3D parts
5. Understand the algorithm for visualization of various 2D and 3D parts
UNIT–I
Introduction: Computers in Industrial Manufacturing, Product cycle, CAD / CAM Hardware,
Basic structure.
Computer Graphics: Display Devices: Cathode Ray Tube, DVST, Raster display, pixel value
and lookup table, estimation of graphical memory, LCD, LED fundamentals. Concept of
Coordinate Systems: Working Coordinate System, Model Coordinate System, Screen
Coordinate System. Graphics exchange standards and Database management systems.

UNIT–II
Curves and Surfaces: Introduction to curve representation, Classification of curves, Line
generation algorithm: DDA and Curve generation algorithm: Bresenham’s algorithm.
Synthetic Curves: Concept of continuity, Cubic Spline: equation, properties and blending.
Bezier Curve: equations, properties; Properties and advantages of B-Splines and NURBS.
Various types of surfaces along with their typical applications.

UNIT–III
Mathematical representation of solids: Geometry and Topology, Comparison of wireframe,
surface and solid models, Properties of solid model, properties of representation schemes,
Concept of Half-spaces, Boolean operations. Schemes: B-rep, CSG, Sweep representation,
ASM, Primitive instancing, Cell Decomposition and Octree encoding

UNIT–IV
Geometric Transformations: Homogeneous representation; Translation, Scaling, Reflection,
Rotation, Shearing in 2D; Orthographic and perspective projections.

MRCET CAMPUS
 B. Tech (MECH) R-18

UNIT–V
VISUAL REALISM: Hidden – Line-Surface-Solid removal algorithms – shading – colouring –
computer animation.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. CAD / CAM Theory and Practice / Ibrahim Zeid / TMH Publishers
2. CAD / CAM /A Zimmers&P.Groover/PE/PHI Publishers

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. CAD / CAM / CIM / Radhakrishnan and Subramanian / New Age Publishers
2. Principles of Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing / Farid Amirouche / Pearson
Edu
3. CAD/CAM: Concepts and Applications/Alavala/ PHI Publishers Computer Numerical
Control Concepts and programming / Warren S Seames / Thomson Publishers
4. CAD / CAM – P N RAO McGraw Hill Publications

Course Outcomes:
1. Understand the applications of computer in the design and manufacturing.
2. Understand and develop the Mathematical representations of curves used in
geometric construction.
3. Understand and develop the Mathematical representations of solids used in
geometric construction.
4. Able to get the transformed in 2D and 3D using transformation equations
5. Understand and develop the algorithm for visualization of various 2D and 3D parts

MRCET CAMPUS
 UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO CAD &
COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Course Objective:

To provide an overview of how computers are being used in design, development of

manufacturing plans and manufacture

Course Outcome:

Understand the applications of computer in the design and manufacturing.

NO OF LECTURE HOURS: 8

LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

(2 to 3 objectives)

1. Computers in Industrial Use of computers Understanding about usage of

Manufacturing in Industrial computers in Industrial
Manufacturing Manufacturing (B5, B6)

2. Product cycle Learning Product Learning about Product Cycle (B4, B5)
Cycle

3. CAD / CAM Hardware Basic Basic structure of Understanding Hardware CAD / CAM
structure. CAD/CAM Hardware Basic structure. (B5, B6)
Hardware

4. Cathode Ray Tube, DVST, Display Devices Learning about different Display
Raster display Devices (B5, B6)
5. Pixel value and lookup table, Pixel value, Learning about Pixel value and
Estimation of graphical graphical lookup table, Estimation of graphical
memory memeory memory (B4, B5)
6. LCD, LED fundamentals LCD, LED Familiarize fundamentals of LCD, LED
(B5, B6)

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7. Working Coordinate System, Concept of Learning about different Coordinate
Model Coordinate System, Coordinate systems (B4, B5)
Screen Coordinate System system
8. Graphics exchange standards Standards of Understanding different Graphics
and Database management graphics exchange standards and Database
systems. exchange, DBMS management systems. (B5, B6)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 INTRODUCTION TO CAD & COMPUTER GRAPHICS

INTRODUCTION

 The use of computers in the manufacturing sector has increased in recent years due to
various reasons.
 One of the main reasons for this is the high demand for manufactured products and the
requirement of on time delivery of quality product.
 Most of the manufacturers have turned to computer integrated (CIM) or computer aided
manufacturing (CAM) to improve efficiency, quality and reduce cost , lead time and process
time of the product.
 Computers are today applied in all the aspects of manufacturing operations including,
planning, control, scheduling, designing, distribution, processing, marketing, production etc.

The role of computer in manufacturing may be broadly classified into two groups:

1. Computer monitoring and control of the manufacturing process.

2. Manufacturing support applications, which deal essentially with the preparations for actual
manufacturing and post-manufacture operations.

In the first category are such applications where the computer is directly interfaced with the
manufacturing apparatus for monitoring and control functions in the manufacturing process.

For example, in a continuous process industry (chemical processing), a number of process

parameters may be monitored. With built-in specifications in the computer memory, suitable
actions may be initiated by the computer for the purpose of regulating the process.

Alternately, a human operator looking at the process may initiate the controlling action. This is
not restricted to the chemical process industry but could include any other type as well, such as
packaging.

In the second category, are all the support functions that computers can provide for the
successful completion of manufacturing operations. The types of support that can be envisaged
are:

• CAD – Computer Aided Design involves creating computer models defined by geometrical
parameters. These models typically appear on a computer monitor as a three-dimensional
representation of a part or a system of parts, which can be readily altered by changing
relevant parameters. CAD systems enable designers to view objects under a wide variety of
representations and to test these objects by simulating real-world conditions.

• CADD - Computer aided design and drafting, combining the CAD function with drafting to
generate the production drawings of the part for the purpose of downstream processing.

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• CAE - Computer aided engineering, Computer-aided engineering (CAE) is the use of
computer software to simulate performance in order to improve product designs or assist in
the resolution of engineering problems for a wide range of industries. This includes
simulation, validation and optimization of products, processes, and manufacturing tools.

• CAM - Computer aided manufacturing, Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is the use of
software and computer-controlled machinery to automate a manufacturing process.

• CAPP - Computer aided process planning, translates design information into the process
steps and instructions to efficiently manufacture parts.

• CATD -Computer Aided Tool Design, Computer assistance to be used for developing the
tools for manufacture such as jigs and fixtures, dies, and moulds.

• CAP-Computer Aided Planning The use of computers for many of the planning functions
such as material requirement planning, computer aided scheduling, etc.

• CAQ-Computer Aided Quality Assurance The use of computers and computer-controlled

equipment for assessing the inspection methods and developing the quality control and
assurance functions.

• CAT-Computer Aided Testing Refers to the software tools that can take a system through its
various phases of operations and examine the response against the expected results.

The use of computers in manufacturing is a methodological approach to the enterprise in

order to improve industrial performance. This requires a range of broad technologies that
have become realisable, thanks to the development in computer technology. The total
components that can be assumed to consist of a number of interlinked domains are shown
in Fig. 1.1.

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 Fig 1.1: The influence of computers used in manufacturing environment

PRODUCT CYCLE

For any product to be developed, the major areas to be looked into would be designing,
manufacturing and marketing. The synchronization between these processes plays a great role in
defining product success.

Here CAD/CAM revolutionize the process of the traditional design and cut costs of any mechanical
part. CAD/CAM drastically reduces the design time for a new product. This gives it so much edge
on the traditional design process that nowadays, traditional design with pen and paper is almost
extinct. Automobile industry is the best example of this improved design time and product cycle.

Product life cycle (PLC) Like human beings, products also have a life-cycle. From birth to death,
human beings pass through various stages e.g. birth, growth, maturity, decline and death. A similar
life-cycle is seen in the case of products. The product life cycle goes through multiple phases,
involves many professional disciplines, and requires many skills, tools and processes. Product life
cycle (PLC) has to do with the life of a product in the market with respect to business/commercial
costs and sales measures. To say that a product has a life cycle is to assert three things:

 Products have a limited life,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

  Product sales pass through distinct stages, each posing different challenges, opportunities,
and problems to the seller,
 Products require different marketing, financing, manufacturing, purchasing, and human
resource strategies in each life cycle stage.

The Traditional Design Process:

Traditionally, the design process contains the following steps:

1. Recognition of Need
2. Definition of Problem
3. Synthesis
4. Analysis and Optimization
5. Evaluation
6. Presentation

Here is the iteration between step 3 and 4 we analyze, find the fault, then again synthesize, again
analyze and iterate and iterate again until we would be able to get satisfactory result. After we
analyze and optimize the design again if we are not satisfied after evaluation, we again iterate i.e.
we again goes to the synthesis.

After all these steps, we finally make a prototype of the part which we are designing. If that fails or
does not fulfill our needs, the whole process will start again.

This is what traditional design process does. Here CAD/CAM comes into the picture. If we use
computer for the problem of synthesis like we are designing the things with the help of a computer,
all the analysis and synthesis will be done on computer and the process consumes much lesser time
than a traditional design process.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 1.2: Design Process

Stage1: Recognizing the fact that there is a need for a new product for intended function. It may
also include the modification in the existing product.

Stage2: Problem is fully defined in terms of functionality and meeting other requirements such as
ergonomic, performance-data, statutory, etc.

Stage3: The design undergoes synthesis, joining its various elements.

Stage4: Product analysis reveals the weaknesses and thus weaknesses can be considered for
improvement. This process is repeated until an acceptable Design achieved.

Stage5: The optimized Design is reviewed from the point of view of expected performance. It can
be done through proto-type modeling and testing against the set standard.

Stage6: Stages 4 and 5 are repeated until acceptable, optimized design is achieved. These stages
are basically iterative in-nature. Iteration depends on the creativeness, ingenuity (skill for devising)
and experience of designers and the software (tools) available.

The process (stage 1 and 2) are human dependent while the stages 3, 4, 5 and 6 (four stages) are
computer based (CAD)

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(A) Geometric modeling: - It implies the existence of a computer graphics screen and some
interaction with the computer to generate the geometry and topology of the part.

(B) Engineering analysis: - Communicates with the data base to retrieve the part description and
with the user to obtain the design constraints, boundary conditions, and other details of the
analysis.

(C) Evaluation module: - Allows the user to check the correctness, manufacturability, and
processing details of the part.

(D) The drafting and documentation module: - Contains some of both the oldest and newest
technologies/Computer plotting of engineering drawings.

Fig 1.3: Design Process

The scope of CAD/CAM in the operations of a manufacturing firm can be analyzed by examining the
various activities and functions that must be accomplished in the design and manufacture of a
product.

These activities and functions can be referred as the product cycle. A diagram showing the various
steps in the product cycle is presented in Figure. The cycle is driven by customers and markets
which demand the product. It is realistic to think of these as a large collection of diverse industrial
and consumer markets rather than one monolithic market. Depending on the particular customer
group, there will be differences in the way the product cycle is activated in some cases, the design
functions are performed by the customer and the product is manufactured by a different firm. In

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other cases, design and manufacturing is accomplished by the same firm. Whatever the case, the
product cycle begins with concept, an idea for a product. This concept is cultivated, refined,
analyzed, improved, and translated into a plan for the product through the design engineering
process.

Fig 1.4: Conventional Product Cycle (Design and Manufacturing)

In the design and production operations of a modern manufacturing firm, the computer has
become a pervasive, useful, and indispensable tool.

It is strategically important and competitively imperative that manufacturing firms and the people
who are employed by them understand CAD/CAM

Fig 1.5: Product Cycle revised with CAD/CAM overlaid

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 Fig 1.5: The Product Cycle in a computerized manufacturing environment

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 Fig 1.6: 10 key functions of Computer Integrated Manufacturing

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CAD/CAM HARDWARE

The developments that have fuelled the growth of the CAD/CAM industry are mostly based on the
major developments in microelectronics, which have helped in leapfrogging the capabilities.

The major component of any CAD/CAM system is the basic hardware that goes with the
computational aspect, that is, the computer and the associated peripherals that go with it.

Basic Structure

The computing system in operation can be compared to a human being in to of its operating
characteristics. The basic configuration of a typical computer system is shown in Fig. 1.7.

Fig 1.7: Configuration of a typical CAD system

The heart of any computing system is the Central Processing Unit (CPU). It is in the CPU that all the
necessary functions of a computer are carried out. The main functions performed in the CPU are
arithmetic and logic operations The CPU communicates with the external world through
input/output devices or, in short, I/O devices. These are similar to the sensory organs by which a
human being maintains contact with the outside environment. These are also collectively called
peripheral units. Through an input device, the user would be able to communicate with the CPU,
either to give certain data or to control the operation of the CPU. The output device is a means
through which the CPU gives the results of the computations.

Another important unit of a computer system is the memory unit. These are the areas where the
necessary data or program (sequence of instructions) is stored. The type of memory and its amount
determines the capabilities of a typical computing computing system. The present-day computers
work on a principle called the stored-program concept. It means that the sequence of operations to
be carried out by the CPU is stored in the memory of the computer. The CPU therefore reads an
instruction and executes it and continues doing so until it reaches the end of the program. This
stored program is called software in computer terminology. Since it is the software, which runs any
computer, the computer is as good as the program that is running at any given time.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The hardware of CAD system consists of following:

• CPU

• Secondary memory

• Workstation

• Input unit

• Output unit

• Graphics display terminal

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the brain of the entire system.

Functions of CPU

• To receive information from the work station and display the output on the CRT screen.

• To read the data stored in the secondary memory storage unit.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 1.8 Components of CPU

Functions of secondary memory

• To store files related to engineering drawing

• To store programs required to give instruction to output devices like plotters.

• To store CAD software

• The secondary storage unit consists of magnetic tapes and discs.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

2. Work Station

Fig. 1.9 Design Workstation

• The work station is a visible part of the CAD system which provides interaction
between the operator and the system.

• Among these advantages offered by work station are their availability, portability,
the availability to dedicate them to a single task without affecting other users and
their consistency of time response.

• A work station can be defined as a station of work with its own computing power to
support major software packages, multitasking capabilities demanded by increased
usage, complex tasks and networking potential with other computing environments.

3. Input Devices

o A no. of input devices is available. These devices are used to input two
possible types of information: text and graphics.
o Text-input devices and the alphanumeric keyboards.

o There are two classes of graphics input devices: Locating devices and image
input devices.
o Locating devices, or locators, provide a position or location on the screen.

o These include light pens, mouse, digitizing tablets, joysticks, trackballs,

thumbwheels, touchscreen and touchpads.
o Locating devices typically operate by controlling the position of a cursor on
screen. Thus, they are also referred to as cursor-control devices.
I. Scanners

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 • Scanners comprise other class of graphics-input device.

• There are four relevant parameters to measure the performance of

graphics input devices. These are resolution, accuracy, repeatability
and linearity.
• Some may be more significant to some devices than others.

II. Keyboards

• Keyboards are typically employed to create/edit programs or to

perform word processing functions.
• CAD/CAM systems, information entered through keyboards should
be displayed back to the user on a screen for verification.
III. Digitizing Tablets

• A digitizing tablet is considered to be a locating as well as pointing

device. It is a small, low-resolution digitizing board often used in
conjunction with a graphics display.
• The tablet is a flat surface over which a stylus can be moved by the
user.
• A tablet’s typical resolution is 200 dots per inch

• The tablet operation is based on sensitizing its surface area to be able

to track the pointing element motion on the surface.
• Several sensing methods and technologies are used in tablets. The
most common sensing technology is electromagnetic, where the
pointing element generates an out of phase magnetic field sensed by
wire grid in tablet surface.

Fig. 1.10 Digitizer

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IV. Mouse

Fig. 1.11 Mouse

• • There are two basic types of mouse available mechanical and

optical.

• The mechanical mouse has roller in order to record the mouse

motion in X and Y directions.
• In optical mouse, movements over the surface are measured by a
light beam modulation technique.
• The light source is located at the bottom and the mouse must be in
contact with the surface for screen cursor to follow its movement.

V. Joy sticks & Trackballs

Fig. 1.10 Joy stick & Track ball

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 • The joystick works by pushing its stick backwards or forward or to left
or right. The extreme positions of these directions correspond to the
four corners of the screen.
• A trackball is similar in principal to a joystick but allows more precise
fingertip control. The ball rotates freely within its mount.
• Both the joystick and trackball are used to navigate the screen display
cursor. The user of a trackball can learn quickly how to adjust to any
nonlinearity in its performance.

VI. Thumbwheels
• Two thumbwheels are usually required to control the screen cursor, one
for its horizontal position and other for its vertical position. Each
position is indicated on screen by cross-hair.

COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures on computer screens with the help of
programming. It involves computations, creation, and manipulation of data. In other words,
computer graphics is a rendering tool for the generation and manipulation of images.
• Computer is information processing machine. User needs to communicate with computer
and the computer graphics is one of the most effective and commonly used ways of
communication with the user.
• It displays the information in the form of graphical objects such as pictures, charts,
diagram and graphs.
• Graphical objects convey more information in less time and easily understandable formats
for example statically graph shown in stock exchange.
• In computer graphics picture or graphics objects are presented as a collection of discrete
pixels.
• We can control intensity and color of pixel which decide how picture look like.
• The special procedure determines which pixel will provide the best approximation to the
desired picture or graphics object this process is known as Rasterization.
• The process of representing continuous picture or graphics object as a collection of
discrete pixels is called Scan Conversion.

Advantages of computer graphics

• Computer graphics is one of the most effective and commonly used ways of
communication with computer.
• It provides tools for producing picture of "real-world" as well as synthetic objects such as
mathematical surfaces in 4D and of data that have no inherent geometry such as survey
result.
• It has ability to show moving pictures thus possible to produce animations with computer

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graphics.
• With the use of computer graphics we can control the animation by adjusting the speed,
portion of picture in view the amount of detail shown and so on.
• It provides tools called motion dynamics. In which user can move objects as well as
observes as per requirement for example walk throw made by builder to show flat interior
and surrounding.
• It provides facility called update dynamics. With this we can change the shape color and
other properties of object.

Applications of Computer Graphics

Computer Graphics has numerous applications, some of which are listed below:
 User interface: - Visual object which we observe on screen which communicates
with user is one of the most useful applications of the computer graphics.
 Plotting of graphics and chart in industry, business, government and educational
organizations drawing like bars, pie-charts, histogram’s are very useful for quick
and good decision making.
 Office automation and desktop publishing: - It is used for creation and
dissemination of information. It is used in in-house creation and printing of
documents which contains text, tables, graphs and other forms of drawn or
scanned images or picture.
 Computer aided drafting and design: - It uses graphics to design components and
system such as automobile bodies structures of building etc.
 Simulation and animation: - Use of graphics in simulation makes mathematic models
and mechanical systems more realistic and easy to study.
 Art and commerce: - There are many tools provided by graphics which allows used to
make their picture animated and attracted which are used in advertising.
 Process control: - Now a day’s automation is used which is graphically displayed on the
screen.
 Cartography: - Computer graphics is also used to represent geographic maps,
weather maps, oceanographic charts etc.
 Education and training: - Computer graphics can be used to generate models of
physical, financial and economic systems. These models can be used as
educational aids.
 Image processing: - It is used to process image by changing property of the image.



DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 CAD

Medical Imaging

Output Devices

 CAD/CAM applications require output devices such as displays and hardcopy printers.

DISPLAY DEVICES

• Display devices are also known as output devices.

• Most commonly used output device in a graphics system is a video monitor.

Cathode Ray Tube

The primary output device in a graphical system is the video monitor. The main element of a

video monitor is the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), shown in the following illustration.

 It is an evacuated glass tube.

 An electron gun at the rear of the tube produce a beam of electrons which is directed

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 towards the screen of the tube by a high voltage typically 15000 to 20000 volts
 Inner side screen is coated with phosphor substance which gives light when it is stroked bye
electrons.
 Control grid controls velocity of electrons before they hit the phosphor.
The control grid voltage determines how many electrons are actually in the electron
beam. The negative the control voltage is the fewer the electrons that pass through
the grid.
 Thus control grid controls Intensity of the spot where beam strikes the screen.
 The focusing system concentrates the electron beam so it converges to small point
when hits the phosphor coating.
 Deflection system directs beam which decides the point where beam strikes the screen.
 Deflection system of the CRT consists of two pairs of parallel plates which are vertical and
horizontal deflection plates.
 Voltage applied to vertical and horizontal deflection plates is control vertical and
horizontal deflection respectively.

Fig 1.11: Cathode Ray Tube

There are two techniques used for producing images on the CRT screen:

1. Vector scan/Random scan display.

2. Raster scan display.

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Vector scan/Random scan display

Fig 1.12: Architecture of a Vector Scan Display

Fig 1.12: Vector Scan/ Raster Scan Display

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 Random scan also is known as a vector display.
 Random scan display directly traces out only the desired lines on CRT.
 If we want line between point p1 & p2 then we directly drive the beam deflection circuitry
which focus beam directly from point p1 to p2
 If we do not want to display line from p1 to p2 and just move then we can blank the beam
as we move it.
 To move the beam across the CRT, the information about both magnitude and direction is
required. This information is generated with the help of vector graphics generator.
 Image shows the architecture of vector display. It consists of display controller, CPU, display
buffer memory and CRT.
 Display controller is connected as an I/O peripheral to the CPU.
 Display buffer stores computer produced display list or display program.
 The Program contains point & line plotting commands with end point co-ordinates as well as
character plotting commands.
 Display controller interprets command and sends digital and point co-ordinates to a vector
generator.
 Vector generator then converts the digital co-ordinate value to analog voltages for beam
deflection circuits that displace an electron beam which points on the CRT’s screen.
 In this technique beam is deflected from end point to end point hence this techniques is
also called random scan.
 We know as beam strikes phosphors coated screen it emits light but that light decays after
few milliseconds and therefore it is necessary to repeat through the display list to refresh
the screen at least 30 times per second to avoid flicker.
 As display buffer is used to store display list and used to refreshing, it is also called refresh
buffer.

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Raster Scan

Fig 1.13: Architecture of Raster Display

 It consists of a display controller, CPU, video controller, refreshes buffer, keyboard, mouse,
and CRT.
 The display image is stored in the form of 1’s and 0’s in the refresh buffer.
 The video controller reads this refresh buffer and produces the actual image on screen.
 It will scan one line at a time from top to bottom & then back to the top.

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 Fig 1.14: Raster scan CRT

 In this method the horizontal and vertical deflection signals are generated to move the
beam all over the screen in a pattern shown in Image.
 Here beam is swept back & forth from left to the right.
 When beam is moved from left to right it is ON.
 When beam is moved from right to left it is OFF and process of moving beam from right
to left after completion of row is known as Horizontal Retrace.
 When beam is reach at the bottom of the screen. It is made OFF and rapidly retraced
back to the top left to start again and process of moving back to top is known as Vertical
Retrace.
 The screen image is maintained by repeatedly scanning the same image. This process is
known as Refreshing of Screen.
 In raster scan displays a special area of memory is dedicated to graphics This memory is
called Frame Buffer.
 Frame buffer holds set of intensity values for all the screen points
 That intensity is retrieved from frame buffer and display on screen one row at a time.
 Each screen point referred as pixel or Pel (Picture Element).
 Each pixel can be specified by its row and column Numbers.

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 Difference between random scan and raster scan
Base of Difference Raster Scan System Random Scan System

Electron Beam The electron beam is swept across The electron beam is directed only to the
the screen, one row at a time, from parts of screen where a picture is to be
top to bottom. drawn.
Resolution Its resolution is poor because raster Its resolution is good because this system
system in contrast produces zigzag produces smooth lines drawings because
lines that are plotted as discrete CRT beam directly follows the line path.
point sets.
Picture Definition Picture definition is stored as a set of Picture definition is stored as a set of line
intensity values for all screen points, drawing instructions in a display file.
called pixels in a refresh buffer area.
Realistic Display The capability of this system to store These systems are designed for line-
intensity values for pixel makes it drawing and can’t display realistic
well suited for the realistic display of shaded scenes.
scenes contain shadow and color
pattern.
Draw an Image Screen points/pixels are used to Mathematical functions are used to
draw an image. draw an image.

Direct-view storage tubes (DVST)

Fig 1.15: Direct-view storage tube

 In raster scan display we do refreshing of the screen to maintain a screen image.

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 DVST gives alternative method for maintaining the screen image.
 DVST uses the storage grid which stores the picture information as a charge distribution
just behind the phosphor coated screen.
 DVST consists two electron guns a primary gun and a flood gun.
 A primary gun stores the picture pattern and the flood gun maintains the picture display.
 A primary gun emits high speed electrons which strike on the storage grid to draw the picture
pattern.
 As electron beam strikes on the storage grid with high speed, it knocks out electrons from
the storage grid keeping the net positive charge.
 The knocked out electrons are attracted towards the collector.
 The net positive charge on the storage grid is nothing but the picture pattern.

 The continuous low speed electrons from flood gun pass through the control grid and are
attracted to the positive charged area of the storage grid.

 The low speed electrons then penetrate the storage grid and strike the phosphor
coating without affecting the positive charge pattern on the storage grid.
 During this process the collector just behind the storage grid smooth out the flow of flood
electrons.

Advantage of DVST
 Refreshing of CRT is not required.
 Very complex pictures can be displayed at very high resolution without flicker.
 Flat screen.

Disadvantage of DVST
 They do not display color and are available with single level of line intensity.
 For erasing it is necessary to removal of charge on the storage grid so erasing and
redrawing process take several second.
 Erasing selective part of the screen cannot be possible.
 Cannot used for dynamic graphics application as on erasing it produce unpleasant flash
over entire screen.
 It has poor contrast as a result of the comparatively low accelerating potential applied
to the flood electrons.
 The performance of DVST is somewhat inferior to the refresh CRT.

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Pixel
Pixel is the smallest element of an image. Each pixel correspond to any one value. In an 8-bit gray
scale image, the value of the pixel between 0 and 255. The value of a pixel at any point correspond
to the intensity of the light photons striking at that point. Each pixel store a value proportional to
the light intensity at that particular location.

PEL
A pixel is also known as PEL. You can have more understanding of the pixel from the pictures given
below.

In the above picture, there may be thousands of pixels, that together make up this image. We will
zoom that image to the extent that we are able to see some pixels division. It is shown in the image
below.

Relation ship with CCD (Charge - Coupled Device) array

We have seen that how an image is formed in the CCD array. So a pixel can also be defined as The
smallest division the CCD array is also known as pixel.

Each division of CCD array contains the value against the intensity of the photon striking to it. This
value can also be called as a pixel.

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Calculation of total number of pixels

We have define an image as a two dimensional signal or matrix. Then in that case the number of PEL
would be equal to the number of rows multiply with number of columns.

This can be mathematically represented as below:

Total number of pixels = number of rows ( X ) number of columns

Or we can say that the number of (x,y) coordinate pairs make up the total number of pixels.

We will look in more detail in the tutorial of image types , that how do we calculate the pixels in a
color image.

Gray level
The value of the pixel at any point denotes the intensity of image at that location , and that is also
known as gray level.

Pixel value.(0)

Each pixel can have only one value and each value denotes the intensity of light at that point of the
image.

We will now look at a very unique value 0. The value 0 means absence of light. It means that 0
denotes dark, and it further means that when ever a pixel has a value of 0, it means at that point,
black color would be formed.

Have a look at this image matrix

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

Now this image matrix has all filled up with 0. All the pixels have a value of 0. If we were to calculate
the total number of pixels form this matrix , this is how we are going to do it.

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Total no of pixels = total no. of rows X total no. of columns

= 3 X 3 = 9.

It means that an image would be formed with 9 pixels, and that image would have a dimension of 3
rows and 3 column and most importantly that image would be black.

The resulting image that would be made would be something like this

Lookup Tables

Video controller often uses a lookup table to allow indirection of display values in frame buffer.

• Allows flexible use of colors without lots of frame-buffer memory.

• Allows change of display without remapping underlying data double buffering.

• Permits simple animation.

• Common sizes: 8 x 12; 8 x 24; 12 x 24.

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 (a) Monochrome display

(b) Color display

Fig. 1.16 Relationship between pixel value and a lookup table

Frame Buffer

The frame buffer is the video memory that is used to hold or map the image displayed on the
screen.

The amount of memory required to hold the image depend primarily on the resolution of the
screen image and the colour depth.

The formula to calculate how much video memory is required at a given resolution and bit depth is
given below.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

  Memory in MB = (X-resolution*Y-resolution*Bit per pixel)/(8*1024* 1024)

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Fig 1.17: Light twisting shutter effect used in design of most LCD.

 It is generally used in small system such as calculator and portable laptop.

 This non emissive device produce picture by passing polarized light from the surrounding
or from an internal light source through liquid crystal material that can be aligned to
either block or transmit the light.
 The liquid crystal refreshes to fact that these compounds have crystalline arrangement of
molecules then also flows like liquid.
 It consists of two glass plates each with light polarizer at right angles to each other
sandwich the liquid crystal material between the plates.
 Rows of horizontal transparent conductors are built into one glass plate, and column
of vertical conductors are put into the other plates.
 The intersection of two conductors defines a pixel position.
 In the ON state polarized light passing through material is twisted so that it will pass

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 through the opposite polarizer.
 In the OFF state it will reflect back towards source.
 We applied a voltage to the two intersecting conductor to align the molecules so that
the light is not twisted.
 This type of flat panel device is referred to as a passive matrix LCD.

 In active matrix LCD transistors are used at each (x, y) grid point. Transistor cause
crystal to change their state quickly and also to control degree to which the state has
been changed.
 Transistor can also serve as a memory for the state until it is changed.
 So transistor make cell ON for all time giving brighter display then it would be if it had
to be refresh periodically

Advantages of LCD display

 Low cost.
 Low weight.
 Small size
 Low power consumption.

LED (Light Emitting Diode)

A Light Emitting Diode is a semiconductor device that emits visible light of a certain color, and is
fundamentally different from conventional light sources such as incandescent, fluorescent, and gas
-discharge lamps, in that an LED:
 uses no gas or filament, has no glass bulb,
 and no failure -prone moving parts
 Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or
doped with impurities to create a p -n, (positive / negative) junction.
 Atoms in the n -type material have extra electrons, atoms in the p - type material have
electron holes.
 Applying current pushes the atoms toward the junction. When they get close, the n -type
atoms ’donate’ their extra electrons to the p -type atoms which ‘accept’ them.
 A negative charge to the n - side allows current to flow from the ( -) charged area to the ( + )
charged area. This is called ‘forward bias’.

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 When extra electrons in the n-type material fall into the holes in the p-type material, they
release energy in the form of photons. The material in an LED is selected so that the
wavelength of the photons falls within the visible portion of spectrum.
 Different materials produce photons at different wavelengths / color.

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Advantages

 Comparable in efficacy to CFLs, gaining on fluorescent tubes, and incandescents.

 Fixtures are directional, allowing for more efficient optics.
 Quality of White Light LEDs now comparable to CFLs, recent advances assure
better consistency in color and CCT.
 Significantly longer ‘Useful’ life
 Light output has improved by 35% / year, while cost has dropped by 20% / year
No infrared, (IR) radiation
 No ultraviolet, (UV) rays
 Mercury free
 Can operate in cold environments
 Can withstand impact and vibrations
 Inherently digital for ease of control
 Instant on
 Growing trend to modularity

CONCEPT OF COORDINATE SYSTEM

A coordinate system is a way of assigning numbers to points. In two dimensions, you need a pair of
numbers to specify a point. The coordinates are often referred to as x and y, although of course,
the names are arbitrary. More than that, the assignment of pairs of numbers to points is itself
arbitrary to a large extent. Points and objects are real things, but coordinates are just numbers that
we assign to them so that we can refer to them easily and work with them mathematically. We
have seen the power of this when we discussed transforms, which are defined mathematically in
terms of coordinates but which have real, useful physical meanings.

In a 2-D coordinate system the X axis generally points from left to right, and the Y axis generally
points from bottom to top. (Although some windowing systems will have their Y coordinates going
from top to bottom)

In three dimensions, you need three numbers to specify a point. (That's essentially what it means to
be three dimensional.) The third coordinate is often called z. The z-axis is perpendicular to both the
x-axis and the y-axis.

This demo illustrates a 3D coordinate system. The positive directions of the x, y, and z axes are
shown as big arrows. The x-axis is green, the y-axis is blue, and the z-axis is red.

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 Fig 1.18: 3D Axes

When we add the third coordinate, Z, we have a choice as to whether the Z-axis points into the
screen or out of the screen:

Right Hand Coordinate System (RHS)

Z is coming out of the page

Counterclockwise rotations are positive

if we rotate about the X axis : the rotation Y->Z is positive
if we rotate about the Y axis : the rotation Z->X is positive
if we rotate about the Z axis : the rotation X->Y is positive

Left Hand Coordinate System (LHS)

Z is going into the page

Clockwise rotations are positive

if we rotate about the X axis : the rotation Y->Z is positive

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 if we rotate about the Y axis : the rotation Z->X is positive
if we rotate about the Z axis : the rotation X->Y is positive

Coordinate System

1. The Model Coordinate System or (world coordinate systems) (MCS).

2. The Working Coordinate System (WCS) or User Coordinate System (UCS).

3. The Screed Coordinate System (or device coordinate system) (SCS).

Model Coordinate System

The model coordinate system is defined as the reference space of the model with respect to which
all the model geometrical data is stored.

It is a cartesian system which forms the default coordinate system used by a particular software
program.

The X, Y, and Z axes of the MCS can be displayed on the computer screen. The origin of the MCS can
be arbitrarily chosen by the user while its orientation is established by the software.

The three default sketch planes of a CAD/CAM system define the three planes of the MCS, and their
intersection point is the MCS origin. When a CAD designer begins sketching, the origin becomes a
corner point of the profile being sketched. The sketch plane defines the orientation of the profile in
the model 3D space. This is how we attach the MCS to a geometric model. In order for the user to
communicate properly and effectively with a model database, the relationships between the MCS
orthogonal (sketch) planes and the model views must be understood by the user.

Typically, the software chooses one of two possible orientations of the MCS in space. As shown in
Figure 1.18a, the XY plane is the horizontal plane and defines the model top view. The front and
right side views are consequently defined by the XZ and YZ planes, respectively.

Figure 1.18b shows the other possible orientation of the MCS where the XY plane is vertical and
defines the model front view. As a result, the XZ and the YZ planes define the top and the right side
views, respectively.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 1.19: Possible orientations of MCS in 3D Space

Existing CAD/CAM software uses the MCS as the default WCS (see Section 2.4.2). In both
orientations, the XY plane is the default construction (sketch) plane. If the user utilizes such a plane,
the first face of a model to be constructed becomes the top or front view, depending on which MCS
is used.

The MCS is the only coordinate system that the software recognizes when storing or retrieving
graphical information in or from a model database. Many existing software packages allow the user
to input coordinate information in cartesian (x, y, z) and cylindrical (r,θ,z).

This input information is transformed to (x, y, z) coordinates relative to the MCS before being
stored in the database. Obtaining views is a form of retrieving graphical information relative to the
MCS. If the MCS orientation does not match the desired orientation of the object being modeled,
users become puzzled and confused. Another form of retrieving information is entity verification.
Coordinates of points defining the entity are given relative to MCS by default. However, existing
software allows users to obtain the coordinates relative to another system (WCS) by using the
proper commands or modifiers.

Fig 1.20: Model or World Coordinate System

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Working Coordinate System

It is often convenient in the development of geometric models and the input of geometric data to
refer to an auxiliary coordinate system instead of the MCS. This is usually useful when a desired
plane (face) of construction is not easily defined as one of the MCS orthogonal planes, as in the case
of inclined faces of a model.

The user can define a cartesian coordinate system whose XY plane is coincident with the desired
plane of construction. That system is the Working Coordinate System, WCS. It is a convenient user-
defined system that facilitates geometric construction.

It can be established at any position and orientation in space that the user desires. While the user
can input data in reference to the WCS, the CAD software performs the necessary transformations
to the MCS before storing the data. The ability to use two separate coordinate systems within the
same model database in relation to one another gives the user great flexibility. Some commercial
software refers to the WCS as is; Unigraphics offers an example. Other software refers to it as a
sketch plane (Pro/E and SolidWorks) or construction plane.

A WCS requires three noncollinear points to define its XY plane. The first defines the ori-gin, the
first and the second define the X axis, and the third point with the first define the Y axis. The Z axis
is determined as the cross product of the two unit vectors in the directions defined by the lines
connecting the first and the second (the X axis), and the first and the third points (Y axis). We will
use the subscript w to distinguish the WCS axes from those of the MCS. The Xm,Y,„ plane becomes
the active sketch (working) or construction plane if the user defines a WCS. In this case, the WCS
and its corresponding XwY,„ plane override the MCS and the default sketch plane, respectively. As a
matter of fact, the MCS with its default sketch plane is the default WCS with its X„,Y„, plane. All
CAD/CAM software packages provide users with three standard WCSs (sketch planes) that
correspond to the three standard views: Front, Top, and Right sides. The user can define other
WCSs or sketch planes.

Fig 1.21: Working or User Coordinate System

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Screen Coordinate System

In contrast to the MCS and WCS, the screen coordinate system (SCS) is defined as a 2D device-
dependent coordinate system whose origin is usually located at the lower left corner of the graphics
display, as shown in Figure 2.6. The physical dimensions of a device screen (aspect ratio) and the type
of device (raster) determine the range of the SCS. The SCS is mostly used in view-related clicks such
as definitions of view origin and window or clicking a view to select it for graphics operations.

Fig 1.21: Typical SCS

 2D Regular Cartesian Grid

 Origin (0,0) at lower left corner
 Horizontal axis – x
 Vertical axis – y
 Pixels are defined at the grid intersections
 This coordinate system is defined relative to the display window origin

Fig 1.12: Screen Coordinate System

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A 1024 1024 display has an SCS with a range of (0,0) to (1024,1024). The center of the screen has
coordinates of (512,512). This SCS is used by the CAD/CAM software to display rel-evant graphics by
converting directly from MCS coordinates to SCS (physical device) coordinates. A normalized SCS
can also be utilized. The range of the SCS can be chosen from (0,0) to (1,1). Such representation can
be translated by device-dependent codes to the appropriate physical device coordinates. The third
method of defining an SCS is by using the drawing size that the user chooses. If a size A drawing is
chosen, the range of the SCS becomes (0,0) to (11,8.5) while size B produces the range (0,0) to
(17,11). The rationale behind this method stems from the conventional drawing board so that the
drafting paper is represented by the device screen.

A transformation operation from MCS coordinates to SCS coordinates is performed by the software
before displaying the model views and graphics. Typically, for a geometric model, there is a data
structure to store its geometric data (relative to MCS), and a display file to store its display data
(relative to SCS).

Fig 1.23: Coordinate Systems

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 1.24 Typical component to model.

Fig. 1.25 Coordinate systems.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GRAPHICS EXCHANGE STANDARDS

The need for portability of the geometric model among different hardware platforms has
led to the development of device independent graphics. Simultaneously standards for the
exchange of drawing database among software packages have been evolved to facilitate
the integration of design and manufacturing operations.

Introduction

The heart of any CAD model is the component database. This includes the graphics entities
like points, lines, arcs, circles etc. and the co-ordinate points, which define the location of
these entities.

This geometric data is used in all downstream applications of CAD, which include finite
element modeling and analysis, process planning, estimation, CNC programming, robot
programming, programming of co-ordinate measuring machines, ERP system programming
and simulation.

In order to achieve at least a reasonably high level of integration between CAD, analysis
and manufacturing operations, the component database must contain:

i. Shapes of the components (based on solid models)

ii. Bill of materials (BOM), of the assembly in which the components are used.
iii. Material of the components
iv. Manufacturing, test and assembly procedures to be carried out to produce a
component so that it is capable of functioning as per the requirements of
design.

In designing a data structure for CAD database the following factors are to be
considered:

i. The data must be neutral

ii. The data structure must be user-friendly
iii. The data must be portable.

In order to achieve the above requirements, some type of standardization has to be

followed by the CAD software designers. The basic elements associated with a CAD
system are:

• Operator (user)

• Graphics support system

• Other user interface support system

• Application functions

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• Database

A diagrammatic presentation of these elements is given in Figure 1.25

Fig. 1.25 CAD System

The reasons for evolving a graphic standard thus include:

• Need for exchanging graphic data between different computer systems.

• Need for a clear distinction between modeling and reviewing aspects.

So proper interface standards are required to be established, some of them are • GKS
(Graphics Kernal System)

• PHIGS (Programmer's Hierarchical Interface for Graphics)

• GKS-3D

• IGES

• STEP

• DXF

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Standards for graphics programming

Attempts to develop a graphics standard resulted in the following developments in 70's:

i. A Graphic Standards Planning Committee (GSPC) was formed in 1974 by ACM-

SIGGRAPH (Association of Computing Machinery's Special Interest Group on
Graphics and Interactive Techniques).
ii. A committee for the development of computer graphics standard was formed by DIN
in 1975.
iii. IFIP organized a workshop on Methodology in Computer Graphics in 1976. iv. A
significant development in CAD standards is the publication of Graphical Kernel
System (GKS) in 1982.

1. GKS (Graphics kernel system): It is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute

and ISO (International Standards Organization) standard. It interfaces the application
program with graphics support package.

2. IGES (Initial graphics exchange specification): It is an ANSI standard. It enables an

exchange of model database among CAD/CAM software.

3. PHIGS (Programmer's hierarchical interactive graphics system): It supports

workstations and their related CAD/CAM applications. It supports 3-dimensional
modeling of geometry segmentation and dynamic display.

4. CGM (Computer graphics metafile): It defines functions needed to describe an image.

Such description can be stored or transported from one graphics device to another.

S. CGII (Computer graphics interface): It is designed to interface plotters to GKS or

PHIGS. It is the lowest device independent interface in a graphics system.

6. Drawing Exchange Format (DXF): The DXF format has been developed and supported
by Autodesk for use with the AutoCAD drawing files. It is not an industry standard
developed by any standards organisation, but in view of the widespread use of
AutoCAD made it a default standard for use of a variety of CAD/CAM vendors. A
Drawing Interchange File is simply an ASCII text file with a file extension of .DXF and
specially formatted text.

7. Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP), officially the ISO standard
10303, Product Data Representation and Exchange, is a series of International
Standards with the goal of defining data across the full engineering and manufacturing
life cycle. The ability to share data across applications, across vendor platforms and
between contractors, suppliers and customers, is the main goal of this standard.

8. Parasolid: It is a portable "kernel" that can be used in multiple systems - both high-
end and mid-range. By adopting Parasolid, start-up software companies have

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

eliminated a major barrier to application development - a high initial investment. This
enabled them to effectively market softwares with strong solid modeling functionality
at lower-cost.

9. PDES (Product Data Exchange Specification) is an exchange for product data In

support of Industrial automation. "Product data" encompasses data relevant to the
entire life cycle of a product such as design, manufacturing, quality assurance, testing
and support. In order to support industrial automation, PDES files are fully Interpretable
by computer. For example, tolerance Information would be carried In a form directly
interpretable by a computer rather than a computerized text form which requires
human intervention to interpret.

Features of GKS

GKS (Graphical Kernel System) is an ANSI and ISO standard. GKS standardizes two-
dimensional graphics functionality at a relatively low level. The primary purposes of the
standard are:

• To provide for portability of graphics application programs.

• To aid in the understanding of graphics method by application programmers.

• To provide guidelines for manufacturers in describing useful graphics capabilities.

The GKS (ANSI X3.124-1985) consists of three basic parts:

i. An informal exposition of contents of the standard, which includes such things as

positioning of text, filling of polygons etc.
ii. A formalization of the expository material outlined in (i) by way of abstracting the
ideas into functional descriptions (input/output parameters, effect of each
function etc.).
iii. Language bindings, which are the implementations of the abstract functions,
described in (ii) in a specific computer language like FORTRAN, Ada or C.
Figure 1.26 shows the GKS implementation in a CAD workstation.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 1.26: GKS implementation in a CAD System

The features of GKS include:

i. Device independence: The standard does not assume that the input or output devices
have any particular features or restrictions.
ii. Text/Annotations: All text or annotations are in a natural language like English.
iii. Display management: A complete suite of display management functions, cursor
control and other features are provided.
iv. Graphics Functions: Graphics functions are defined in 2D or 3D.

GKS offers two routines to define the user created pictures. They are primitive functions
and attribute functions.

Examples of primitive functions are: • POLYLINE to draw a set of connected straight-line

vectors

• POLYMARKER to draw a set of markers or shapes

• FILL AREA to draw a closed polygon with interior fill

• TEXT to create characters

• GDP (Generalized Drawing Primitive) to specify the standard drawing entities like circle,
ellipse etc.

The attribute functions define the appearance of the image e.g. color, line-type etc. Current

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

level of GKS is GKS-3D, which provides several other functions. GKS-3D is an extension to
GKS, which allows the production of 3-D objects.

Exchange of CAD data between software packages

Necessity to translate drawings created in one drafting package to another often arises. For
example you may have a CAD model created in PRO/E package and you may wish that this
might be transferred to I-DEAS or Unigraphics.

It may also be necessary to transfer geometric data from one software to another. This
situation arises when you would want to carry out modeling in one software, say PRO/E
and analysis in another software, say ANSYS.

One method to meet this need is to write direct translators from one software to another.
This means that each system developer will have to produce its own translators. This will
necessitate a large number of translators. If we have three software packages we may
require six translators among them.

This is shown in Fig. 1.27.

Fig. 1.27: Direct Data Translation

A solution to this problem of direct translators is to use neutral files. These neutral files will
have standard formats and software packages can have pre-processors to convert drawing
data to neutral file and postprocessors to convert neutral file data to drawing file.

Figure 1.28 illustrates how the CAD data transfer is a accomplished using neutral file.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 1.28: CAD Data Exchange using Neutral files

Three types of neutral files are:

i. Drawing exchange files (DXF)

ii. IGES files

iii. STEP files

Drawing exchange files (DXF)

DXF is short for Drawing Interchange Format or Drawing Exchange Format. Commonly
known as AutoCAD DXF format, is a CAD data file format. It was developed by Autodesk to
enable data interoperability between AutoCAD and other programs. DXF file format was
first introduced in 1982. The key purpose of this format was to produce the exact
representation of AutoCAD native DWG files on other applications. For many years, the
importing process of DXF files had been very difficult because of the unavailability of
specifications of the format. Presently the format specifications are available as PDF but
this format is rarely used in AutoCAD applications.

Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) Graphics Standard

The IGES committee was established in the year 1979. The CAD/CAM Integrated
Information Network (CIIN) of Boeing served as the preliminary basis of IGES. IGES version
1.0 was released in 1980. IGES continues to undergo revisions. IGES is a popular data
exchange standard today.

IGES files can also be generated for:

i. Surfaces

ii. Datum curves and points

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Standard for the Exchange of Product Data (STEP)

Seamless exchange of product data is critical to CAD/CAM/CAE systems. The Standard for
the Exchange of Product Data (STEP) is the enabler for such seamless data exchange.

It provides a worldwide standard for storing, sharing and exchanging product information
among different CAD systems. Although STEP itself is the basis for Product Data
Management System (PDM). It covers border functionalities. It includes methods of
representing all critical product specifications such as shape information, materials,
tolerances, finishes and product structure.

Whereas the Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) standard has widespread use, it
has its shortcomings. It does not convey the extensive product information needed in the
design and manufacturing cycle. Often IGES translators are required to move design data
from one CAD system to another. STEP is often viewed as a replacement for IGES, though
IGES is still expected to be in active use for some more time in the future. Although the
current focus of STEP is on mechanical parts, STEP is a data exchange standard that would
apply to a wide range of product areas, including electronics, architectural, engineering and
construction, apparel and shipbuilding.

DATABASE MANGEMENT SYSTEM

The data generated during a design and engineering process shares multiple features and
structures. The more complex the product and the longer the project the more important is
the control of the product configuration data. Apart from the traditional drawings and CAD
models this data includes various technical notes, measurement results, material
properties, key parameters of the system, manufacturing and assembly instructions,
organizational relations (i.e. responsibilities) and chronological change history of each
component of the product.

The role of Engineering Data Management (EDM) is to store and provide a user-friendly
access to this data during the product’s life-cycle according to certain predefined control
rules. These rules are defined by the configuration management team of the LHC-project in
collaboration with the key players of the project.

Engineering Data Management Systems

In recent years, there has been a growing awareness that although computer-aided design
technology and the widespread use of computer applications to prepare engineering
documents were accomplishing their objective of improving the productivity of individual
engineers and designers, they were not doing much to improve the productivity of the

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

overall enterprise.

To accomplish this latter objective better methods were needed to share information
between members of the design teams and other groups involved in the product life cycle.

Engineering Data Management (EDM) is a set of techniques and tools to organize, control
and distribute all product related data during a product’s life cycle (Fig. 1.29). They have
been developed to reduce the development cycle of new products while maintaining
control of the data and distributing it automatically to the people who need it when they
need it.

Fig 1.29: EDM’s role in the Product Life Cycle

One of the prime motivation for EDM is the sheer volume and diversity of engineering data.

An exhaustive description of a part or an assembly requires a huge amount of

documentation. The more complex the item, the more diverse is the documentation. The
following information topics could easily be listed under the heading of the complete set of
the engineering documentation of a part or an assembly:

• drawings,

• CAD models,

• part lists,

• structural analysis models,

• spread sheets,

• technical notes,

• measurements results,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• manufacturing instructions,

• assembly instructions,

• organizational relations,

• material properties,

• schematics,

• applicable standards,

• photos and shaded images

The basic concept of EDM to manage datasets created by the various tools (Fig. 1.30) is to
create a metadata layer, i.e. a layer containing pointers and summary information for the
datasets being managed. The metadata itself is usually maintained in a database and
managed by a DBMS. This is similar to the use of library card catalogs.

Fig 1.30: EDM Basic Concept

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Tutorial Questions
1. Explain the applications where computers are used in Industrial Manufacturing.
2. Explain about Product Cycle.
3. Explain basic structure of CAD/CAM Hardware.
4. Explain about different display devices.
5. Explain fundamentals of LCD and LED.
6. What are the different types of coordinate systems? Explain them.
7. Explain about different Graphic Exchange Standards.
8. Explain about Database Management System.

QUESTION BANK

1. Explain about Product Cycle.

2. Explain about different display devices.
3. Explain fundamentals of LCD and LED.
4. Explain about different Graphic Exchange Standards.
5. Explain about Database Management System

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 UNIT 2
CURVES AND SURFACES
Course Objective:
Understand the Mathematical representations of curves and surfaces used in geometric
construction.
Course Outcome:
Understand and develop the Mathematical representations of curves
and surfaces used in geometric construction.

NO OF LECTURE HOURS: 7
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

(2 to 3 objectives)

1. Introduction to curve Representation Understanding how to represent the

representation, Classification of curves and curves (B5, B6)
of curves classification

2. Line and Curve generation Algorithm for line Learning and applying line generation
algorithm: DDA and Curve algorithms (B4, B5)
generation

3. Synthetic Curves: Concept of Synthetic curves Learning about Synthetic Curves:

continuity, Concept of continuity (B4, B5)
4. Bezier Curve: equations, Bezier Curves Learning about Bezier Curve:
properties equations, properties (B4, B5)
5. Properties and advantages of B-Splines and Learning about Properties and
B-Splines and NURBS NURBS advantages of B-Splines and NURBS
(B5, B6)
6. Various types of surfaces Representation Learning about Various types of
along with their typical of surfaces surfaces along with their typical
applications applications (B4, B5)
7. Various types of surfaces Algorithms for Learning about Various types of
along with their typical curve generation surfaces along with their typical
applications applications (B4, B5)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Curve Representation
 Curve is defined as the locus of point moving with one degree freedom.
 A curve can be represented by following two methods either by storing its analytical
equation or by storing an array of co-ordinates of various points
 Curves can be described mathematically by following methods:
(i) Non-parametric form
a) Explicit form
b) Implicit form
(ii) Parametric form
Non-parametric form:
 In this, the object is described by its co-ordinates with respect to current
reference frame in use.
Explicit form: (Clearly expressed)
 In this, the co-ordinates of y and z of a point on curve are expressed as two
separate functions of x as independent variable.
P = [x y z]
= [x f(x) g(x)]
Implicit form: (Not clearly expressed)
 In this, the co-ordinates of x, y and z of a point on curve are related
together by two functions.
F (x, y, z) = 0
G (x, y, z) = 0
Limitation of nonparametric representation of curves are:
1. If the slope of a curve at a point is vertical or near vertical, its value becomes infinity
or very large, a difficult condition to deal with both computationally and
programming-wise. Other ill-defined mathematical conditions may result.
2. Shapes of most engineering objects are intrinsically independent of any coordinate
system. What determines the shape of an object is the relationship between its data
points themselves and not between these points and some arbitrary coordinate
system.
3. If the curve is to be displayed as a series of points or straight line segments, the
computations involved could be extensive.
Parametric form:
 In this, a parameter is introduced and the co-ordinates of x, y and z are
expressed as functions of this parameters. This parameter acts as a local
co-ordinate for points on curve.
P (u) = [x y z]
= [x (u) y (u) z (u)]

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Classification of Curves
 Curves can be classified as shown below mainly in two categories:
1. Analytical Curves:
 The curves which are defined by the analytical equations are known as analytical
curves.
 Examples: line, circle, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola etc.
2. Synthetic Curves:
 The curves which are defined by set of data points are known as synthetic curves.
 Combination of polynomial segments to represent a desired curve is called a
synthetic curve.
 These curves can be conveniently twisted, shaped or bent by changing the
control points.
 Examples: Cubic spline curve, B-spline curve, Bezier curve etc.
 Synthetic curves take up where the analytic curves leave – the latter are not that
efficient at geometric design of mechanical parts.
 Need for synthetic curves arise in two occasions:
 When a curve is represented by a collection of measured data points,
 When an existing curve must change to meet new design requirements
the designer needs a curve representation that is directly related to the
data points and is flexible enough to bend, twist or change the shape by
changing one or more data points.
 Some examples of complex geometric design are: Car bodies, Ship hulls, Airplane
fuselage and wings, Propeller blades, Shoe insoles, aesthetically designed bottles
etc.
 When the curve pass through all the data points, then the curve is known as
Interpolant curve. It sounds more logical but can be more unstable and ringing.
 When a smooth curve is approximated through the data points, then the curve is
known as approximation curve. It turns out to be convenient.

(a) Interploation

(b) Approximation
Fig. 2.1 Interpolant and Approximated Curves

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

  Synthetic curve pass through defined data points and can thus represented by
polynomial equations.
 The parametric form for any synthetic curve is:
P u  C3 u3  C2 u2  C1 u  C0
where, u = Parameter and Ci = Polynomial coefficients

LINE GENERATION ALGORITHM

A line connects two points. It is a basic element in graphics. To draw a line, you need two points
between which you can draw a line. In the following three algorithms, we refer the one point of line
as X0, Y0 and the second point of line as X1, Y1.

 The Cartesian slop-intercept equation for a straight line is “𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦” with ‘𝑦’

representing slop and ‘𝑦’ as the intercept.
 The two endpoints of the line are given which are say (𝑦1, 𝑦1) and (𝑦2, 𝑦2).

Y2

y1

X1 X2

Fig. 1.26: - Line path between endpoint positions.

 We can determine values for the slope m by equation:
𝑦 = (𝑦2 − 𝑦1)/(𝑦2 − 𝑦1)
 We can determine values for the intercept b by equation:
𝑦 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦 ∗ 𝑦1
 For the given interval ∆𝑦 along a line, we can compute the corresponding 𝑦 interval ∆𝑦 as:
∆𝑦 = 𝑦 ∗ ∆𝑦
 Similarly for ∆𝑦:
∆𝑦 = ∆𝑦/𝑦
 For line with slop |𝑦| < 1, ∆𝑦 can be set proportional to small horizontal deflection voltage and
the corresponding vertical deflection voltage is then set proportional to ∆𝑦 which is calculated
from above equation.
 For line with slop |𝑦| > 1, ∆𝑦 can be set proportional to small vertical deflection voltage and the
corresponding horizontal deflection voltage is then set proportional to ∆𝑦 which is calculated
from above equation.
 For line with slop 𝑦 = 1, ∆𝑦 = ∆𝑦 and the horizontal and vertical deflection voltages are equal.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DDA Algorithm
Digital differential analyzer (DDA) is scan conversion line drawing algorithm based on calculating either
∆𝑦 or ∆𝑥 using above equation.

Step 1: Get the input of two end points (X0, Y0) and (X1, Y1).
Step 2: Calculate the difference between two end points.

dx = X1 - X0
dy = Y1 - Y0

Step 3: Based on the calculated difference in step-2, you need to identify the number of
steps to put pixel.
If dx > dy, then you need more steps in x coordinate; otherwise in y coordinate.

if(absolute(dx) > absolute(dy))

Steps = absolute(dx);
else
Steps = absolute(dy);

Step 4: Calculate the increment in x coordinate and y coordinate.

Xincrement = dx / (float) steps;

Yincrement = dy / (float) steps;

Step 5: Put the pixel by successfully incrementing x and y coordinates accordingly and
complete the drawing of the line.

for(int v=0; v < Steps; v++)

{
x = x + Xincrement;
y = y + Yincrement;
putpixel (Round(x), Round(y));
}

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Advantages of DDA algorithm
 It is faster algorithm.
 It is simple algorithm.

Disadvantage of DDA algorithm

 Floating point arithmetic is time consuming.
 Poor end point accuracy.

Fig. 1.27 Flow chart for line calculation procedure by DDA algorithm

Example 1.1
Indicate which raster locations would be chosen by DDA algorithm when scan
converting a line from screen coordinate (19, 38) to screen coordinate (38, 52).
∆𝒚 𝒚𝟐−𝒚𝟏 𝟓𝟐−𝟑𝟖
m= = = = 0.737
∆𝒙 𝒙𝟐−𝒙𝟏 𝟑𝟖−𝟏𝟗
So, m  1
∆X = 1 and yi1  yi  m

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Table 1.1 Calculation of pixel positions by DDA Algorithm
X Y calculated Y rounded
19 38 38
20 38.737 39
21 39.474 39
22 40.211 40
23 40.948 41
24 41.685 42
25 42.422 42
26 43.159 43
27 43.896 44
28 44.633 45
29 45.370 45
30 46.107 46
31 46.844 47
32 47.581 48
33 48.318 48
34 49.055 49
35 49.792 50
36 50.529 51
37 51.266 51
38 52.003 52

CIRCLE GENERATION ALGORITHM

Drawing a circle on the screen is a little complex than drawing a line. There are two
popular algorithms for generating a circle: Bresenham’s Algorithm.

These algorithms are based on the idea of determining the subsequent points required to
draw the circle. Let us discuss the algorithms in detail:

The equation of circle is X2 + Y2 = r2 , where r is radius.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Bresenham’s Algorithm

We cannot display a continuous arc on the raster display. Instead, we have to choose the
nearest pixel position to complete the arc.

From the following illustration, you can see that we have put the pixel at (X, Y) location
and now need to decide where to put the next pixel: at N (X+1, Y) or at S (X+1, Y-1).

This can be decided by the decision parameter d.

 If d <= 0, then N(X+1, Y) is to be chosen as next pixel.

 If d > 0, then S(X+1, Y-1) is to be chosen as the next pixel.

Algorithm

Step 1: Get the coordinates of the center of the circle and radius, and store them in x, y,
and R respectively. Set P=0 and Q=R.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Step 2: Set decision parameter D = 3 – 2R.

Step 3: Repeat through step-8 while X < Y.

Step 4: Call Draw Circle (X, Y, P, Q).

Step 5: Increment the value of P.

Step 6: If D < 0 then D = D + 4x + 6.

Step 7: Else Set Y = Y + 1, D = D + 4(X-Y) + 10.

Step 8: Call Draw Circle (X, Y, P, Q).

Draw Circle Method(X, Y, P, Q).

Call Putpixel (X + P, Y + Q).

Call Putpixel (X - P, Y + Q).

Call Putpixel (X + P, Y - Q).

Call Putpixel (X - P, Y - Q).

Call Putpixel (X + Q, Y + X).

Call Putpixel (X - Q, Y + X).

Call Putpixel (X + Q, Y - X).

Call Putpixel (X - Q, Y - X).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Parametric representation of synthetic curve
 Analytic curves, are usually not sufficient to meet geometric design requirements of
mechanical parts. Products such as car bodies, ship hulls, airplane fuselage and
wings, propeller blades, shoe insoles and bottles are a few examples that require
free-form, or synthetic, curves and surfaces.
 The need for synthetic curves in design arises on two occasions: when a curve is
represented by a collection of measured data points and when an existing curve must
change to meet new design requirements.
 In the latter occasion, the designer would need a curve representation that is directly
related to the data points and is flexible enough to bend, twist, or change the curve
shape by changing one or more data points.
 Data points are usually called control points and the curve itself is called an
interpolant if it passes through all the data points.

Fig. 2.11 Various Orders of Continuity of Curves

 Mathematically, synthetic curves represent a curve-fitting problem to construct a
smooth curve that passes through given data points. Therefore, polynomials are the
typical form of these curves.
 Various continuity requirements can be specified at the data points to impose various
degrees of smoothness of the resulting curve. The order of continuity becomes
important when a complex curve is modeled by several curve segments pieced
together end to end.
 Zero-order continuity (C0) yields a position continuous curve. First (C 1)- and second
(C2)-order continuities imply slope and curvature continuous curves respectively.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 A C1 curve is the minimum acceptable curve for engineering design. Fig. 2.11 shows a
geometrical interpretation of these orders of continuity.
 A cubic polynomial is the minimum order polynomial that can guarantee the
generation of C0, C1, or C2 curves. In addition, the cubic polynomial is the lowest-
degree polynomial that permits inflection within a curve segment and that allows
representation of nonplanar (twisted) three dimensional curves in space.
 Higher-order polynomials are not commonly used in CAD/CAM because they tend to
oscillate about control points, are computationally inconvenient and are
uneconomical of storing curve and surface representations in the computer.
 The type of input data and its influence on the control of the resulting synthetic
curve determine the use and effectiveness of the curve in design.
 For example, curve segments that require positions of control points and/or tangent
vectors at these points are easier to deal with and gather data for than those that
might require curvature information.
 Also, the designer may prefer to control the shape of the curve locally instead of
globally by changing the control point(s). If changing a control point results in
changing the curve locally in the vicinity of that point, local control of the curve is
achieved; otherwise global control results.
 Major CAD/CAM systems provide three types of synthetic curves: Hermite cubic
spline, Bezier and B-spline curves. The cubic spline curve passes through the data
points and therefore is an interpolant.
 Bezier and B-spline curves in general approximate the data points, that is, they do
not pass through them. Under certain conditions, the B-spline curve can be an
interpolant. Both the cubic spline and Bezier curves have a first-order continuity and
the B-spline curve has a second-order continuity.
 Hermite Cubic Spline Curve:
 They are used to interpolate the given data but not to design free-form curves.
Splines derive their name from “French curves or splines”
 It connects two data (end) points and utilizes a cubic equation.
 Four conditions are required to determine the coefficients of the equation – two end
points and the two tangent vectors at these two points.
 It passes through the control points and therefore it is an Interpolant. It has only up
to C1 continuity.
 The curve cannot be modified locally, i.e., when a data point is moved, the entire
curve is affected, resulting in a global control.
 The order of the curve is always constant (cubic), regardless of the number of data
points. Increase in the number of data points increases shape flexibility, however, this
requires more data points, creating more splines that are joined together (only two
data points and slopes are utilized for each spline).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 2.12 Hermite Cubic Spline Curve
 A cubic spline curve utilizes a cubic equation of the following form:
P u  3C u3  2C u2  1C u 0C (2.10)
where, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1
 The cubic spline is defined by the two endpoints P0, P1 and the tangent vectors at
these points. The tangent vector can be found by differentiating equ.(2.10).
P'  u   3C3 u2  2C2 u  C1 (2.11)
 To determine the coefficients of the curve, consider the two endpoints P0, P1 and the
tangent vectors as shown in Fig. 2.12.
 Applying conditions at u = 0, in equations (2.10) and (2.11)
P0  C0 (2.12)
P '0  C1 (2.13)
 Applying conditions at u = 1, in equations (2.10) and (2.11)
P1  C3  C2  C1  C0 (2.14)
P'1  3C3  2C2  C1 (2.15)
 Substituting (2.12) and (2.13) in (2.14) and (2.15), we get:
P1  C3  C2  P'0  P0 (2.16)
P'1  3C3  2C2  P'0 (2.17)
 By solving simultaneous equations (2.16) and (2.17), we get
3P1  P'1  C2 2P'0  3P0
C2  3P1  P'1 2P'0  3P0 (2.18)
 Similarly again by solving simultaneous equations (2.16) and (2.17), we get
P'1  2P1  C3  P'0  2P0
C3  P'1 2P1  P'0  2P0 (2.19)
 Substituting (2.12), (2.13), (2.18) and (2.19) in (2.10), we get:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 P  u   P'  2P  P'  2P  u3   3P  P'  2P'  3P  u2  P' u  P
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
P u  P' u3 2Pu3  P' u3 2P u3  3Pu2 P' u2 2P' u2 3P u2  P' u  P
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
P  u  2P u3  3P u2  P 2Pu3  3Pu2  P' u3 2P' u2  P' u  P ' u3 P ' u2
P  u   P  2u3  3u2  1  P  2u3  3u2   P'  u3  2u2  u   P '  u3 u2 
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

(2.20)
0 1 0 1

 The expression can be written in matrix form as under:

2u

3
33u2  1
2u  3u2 
P u    P P P' P'    
1  u  2u  u 
3 2
0 1 0

 3 2
 u  u 
 2 3 0 1 u3 
2 3 0 0  2 
P u   P P P' P '  
 u 
0 1 0 1
 1 2 1 0   
u 
  
 1 1 0 0 1 
 On similar lines, the tangent vector equation can be determined by differentiating
equation (2.20)
P'  u   P0  6u2  6u   P1  6u2  6u   P' 0  3u2  4u  1  P' 1 3u2 2u 
 6u2  6u 
 
P ' u    P P P' 6u2  6u 
P '  
1 
0 1 0
3u2  4u  1
 
 3u2
 2u 
0 6 6 0 u  2 
3

0 6 6 0 
P ' u   P P P' P '   u 
0 1 0 1 0 3 4 1  u 
   
0 3 2 0 1 
 Changing the values of endpoints or tangent vectors would modify the shape of the
curve.
Example 2.5: A cubic spline curve has start point P 0(16,0) and end point P1(3,1). The tangent
vector for end point P0 is given by line joining P0 and point P2(14,8). Tangent vector for end
P1 is given by line joining P2 and point P1.
1. Determine the parametric equation of hermite cubic curve.
2. Plot the hermite cubic curve.
P0 = [16 0]
P1 = [3 1]
P’0 = P2 – P0 = [14 8] – [16 0]
= [–2 8]
P’1 = P1 – P2 = [3 1] – [14 8]
= [–11 –7]

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Parametric equation
For any point on curve
 2 3 0 1 u3 
2 3 0 0  2 
P u    P P P' P '   u 

0 1 0 1
 1 2 1 0   u  
  
 1 1 0 0 1 
X coordinate of a point on curve
 2 3 0 1 u3 
2 3  
0 0 u 2 
P u    P P P ' P '   
x 0x 1x 0x 1x
 1 2 1 0  u 
  
 1 1 0 0 1 
 2 3 0 1 u3 
2 3 0  
0 u 2 
Px u  16 3 2 11  
 1 2 1 0  u 
   
 1 1 0 0 1 
u3 
 u2 
P u 13 24 2 16 
x
 u 
 
1 
Px u  13u3 24u2 2u 16

Y coordinate of a point on curve

2 3 0 1 u3 
  
P u  P P P' P '  2 3 0 0 u2 
  
 0y 1y  2 1 0  u 
 1
y 1y 0y
  
1 1 0 0  1 
 2 3 0 1 u3 
2 3 0  
0 u 2 
Py u   0 1 8 7   
 1 2 1 0  u 
   
 1 1 0 0 1 
u3 
 u2 
P u 1 6 8 0 
y
 u 
 
1 
Py  u  u u  8u
3 2

Thus, parametric equation of parametric curve is

Px u  13u3  24u2  2u  16
(2.21)
Py u  u3  u2  8u

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Curve plot
The point on curve obtained by varying value of u from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.1 in equ. (2.21)
are shown in table

Point
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No.
U 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x (u) 16 15.57 14.74 13.59 12.19 10.63 8.97 7.30 5.70 4.24 3.00
y (u) 0 0.74 1.35 1.83 2.18 2.38 2.42 2.32 2.05 1.61 1.00

The Hermite cubic curve plotted using the above coordinates is shown in Fig. 2.13.

Fig. 2.13
Example 2.6: The end point of a cubic spline curve are P 0(1,2) and P1(7,1). The tangent vector
for end P0 is given by line joining P0 and point P2(-2,1). The tangent vector for end P0 is given
by line joining P3(9,-2) and point P1.
1. Determine the parametric equation of hermite cubic curve.
2. Determine the parametric equation for tangent vector.
3.Plot the hermite cubic curve.
P0 = [1 2]
P1 = [7 1]
P’0 = P2 – P0 = [–2 1] – [1 2] = [–3 –1]
P’1 = P1 – P3 = [7 1] – [9 –2] = [–2 3]

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Parametric equation of curve
For any point on curve
 2 3 0 1 u3 
2 3 0 0  2 
P u    P P P' P '   u 

0 1 0 1
 1 2 1 0   u  
  
 1 1 0 0 1 
X coordinate of a point on curve
2 3 0 1 u3 
2  
3 0 0 u 2 
P u    P P P ' P '   
x 0x 1x 0x 1x
 1 2 1 0  u 
  
1 1 0 0 1 
 2 3 0 1 u3 
2 3  
0 0 u 2 
Px u 1 7 3 2  
 1 2 1 0  u 
   
 1 1 0 0 1 
u3 
 u2 
P u 17 26 3 1 
x
 u 
 
1 
Px u  17u3  26u2  3u 1

Y coordinate of a point on curve

2 3 0 1 u3 
  
P u  P P P ' P '  2 3 0 0 u2 
  
 0y 1y 1y  2 1 0  u 
 1
y 0y
  
1 1 0 0  1 
 2 3 0 1 u3 
2 3 0  
0 u 2 
Py u   2 1 1 3    
 1 2 1 0  u 
   
 1 1 0 0 1 
u3 
 u2 
P u   4 4 1 2 
y
 u 
 
1 
Py  u  4u  4u u  2
3 2

Thus, parametric equation of parametric curve is

Px u  17u3  26u2  3u  1
(2.22)
Py u  4u3  4u2  u  2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Parametric equation of tangent vector
0 6 6 0 u
 2 
3

0 6 6 0 
P 'u  P P P' P'    u 
0 1 0 1 0 3 4 1  u 
   
 0 3 2 0 1 
X coordinate of tangent vector 
0 6 6 0 u
 
3

0 6 6 0 u2 
P ' u   1 7 3 2     
x
0 3 4 1  u 
   
0 3 2 0 1 
u3 
u2 
P ' u    0 51 52 3 
x
 u 
 
1 
P' x  u  51u2  52u  3


Y coordinate of tangent vector

0 6 6 0 u  2 
3

0 6 6 0 
P 'y u 2 1 1 3 u
  
0 3 4 1  u 
   
 0 3 2 0  1 
u3 
 u2 
P ' u    0 12 8 1 
y
 u 
 
1 
P'y  u  12u2  8u 1


Thus, parametric equation of tangent vector is

P 'x u  51u2  52u  3
P 'y u  12u2  8u 1

Curve plot
The point on curve obtained by varying the value of u from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.1 in equ.(2.22)
are shown in table

Point
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No.
U 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x (u) 1 0.94 1.30 1.98 2.87 3.88 4.89 5.81 6.54 6.97 7.00
y (u) 2 1.86 1.67 1.45 1.22 1.00 0.82 0.71 0.69 0.78 1.00

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The Hermite cubic curve plotted using the above coordinates is shown in Fig. 2.14.

Fig. 2.14
 Bezier Curves:
 Cubic splines are based on interpolation techniques. Curves resulting from these
techniques pass through the given points.
 Another alternative to create curves is to use approximation techniques which
produce curves that do not pass through the given data points. Instead, these
points are used to control the shape of the resulting curves.
 Most often, approximation techniques are preferred over interpolation techniques
in curve design due to the added flexibility and the additional intuitive feel
provided by the former. Bezier and B-spline curves are examples based on
approximation techniques.
 As its mathematics show shortly, the major differences between the Bezier curve
and the cubic spline curve are:
1. The shape of Bezier curve is controlled by its defining points only. First derivatives
are not used in the curve development as in the case of the cubic spline. This
allows the designer a much better feel for the relationship between input (points)
and output (curve).
2. The order or the degree of Bezier curve is variable and is related to the number of
points defining it; n + 1 points define an nth degree curve which permits higher-
order continuity. This is not the case for cubic splines where the degree is always
cubic for a spline segment.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3. The Bezier curve is smoother than the cubic spline because it has higher order
derivatives.

Fig. 2.15 Beizer Curve

 The Bezier curve is defined in terms of (n+1) points. This points are called as
control points, where n is the degree of the curve.
 If n=3 control points are 4, as shown in the Fig 2.15.
 These control points form the vertices of the control polygon or Bezier
characteristic polygon.
 The control or Bezier characteristic polygon uniquely defines the curve.
 Properties of Beizer Curve:
 The degree of polynomial defining the curve segment is one less than the no. of
defining polygon points (n-1).
 The curve follows the shape of the defining polygon.
 Only the first and last control points or vertices of polygon actually lie on curve.
 The other vertices define order & shape of the curve. (see Fig. 3.8)

Fig. 2.16 Same data points but different orders for Beizer Curve
 The curve is also always tangent to first and last segments of polygon.
 The same Beizer curve would be generated, if the sequence of the points is
changed from P0 – P1 – P2 – P3 to P3 – P2 – P1 – P0.
 The flexibility of the shape would increase with increase in number of vertices
of the polygon.
 It is having global control on the shape of the curve.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 2.17 Same Typical Examples of Beizer Curve
 Mathematically, for n + 1 control points, the Bezier curve is defined by the
following polynomial of degree n:
n

P(u)   Pi Bi ,n (u), 0  u  1 (2.23)

i 0

 where P(u) is any point on the curve and Pi is a control point. Bi,n are the Bernstein
polynomials. Thus, the Bezier curve has a Bernstein basis. The Bernstein polynomial
serves as the blending or basis function for the Bezier curve and is given by
B (u)  C(n,i)ui (1  u)ni (2.24)
i ,n

 where C(n,i) is the binomial coefficient

n!
C(n,i)  (2.25)
i!n  i !

 Utilizing Eqs. (2.24) and (2.25) and observing that C(n, 0) = C(n, n) = 1,
 Eq. (2.23) can be expanded to give
P(u) P0 (1  u)n P1 C(n,1)u(1  u)n1 P2 C(n,2)u2(1  u)n2
..... P C(n,n 1)un1 (1  u) P un , 0  u  1
n1 n

 Bezier curve with 3 control points

P(u) P0 (1  u)2 P1 C(2,1)u(1  u)21 P2 C(2,2)u2 (1  u)22
P(u)  (1  u)2 P  2u(1  u)P  u2P
0 1 2

 Bezier curve with 4 vertices

P(u) P0 (1  u)3 P1 C(3,1)u(1  u)31 P2 C(3,2)u2 (1  u)32 P
3
C(3,3)u3 (1  u)33
P(u)  (1  u)3P  3u(1  u)2P  3u2 (1  u)P  u3P
0 1 2 3

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

  Bezier curve with 5 vertices
P(u) P0 (1  u)4 P1 C(4,1)u(1  u)41 P2 C(4,2)u2 (1  u)42 P3 C(4,3)u3(1  u)43 P4 C(4,4)u4 (1  u)44
P(u)  (1  u)4 P  4u(1  u)3P  6u2 (1  u)2P  4u3 (1  u)P  u4P
0 1 2 3 4

Example 2.7: A Bezier curve is to be constructed using control points P 0(35,30), P1(25,0),
P2(15,25) and P3(5,10). The Bezier curve is anchored at P0 and P3. Find the equation of the
Bezier curve and plot the curve for u = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.
P0 = [35 30]
P1 = [25 0]
P2 = [15 25]
P3 = [5 10]
n=3
The parametric equation for Bezier curve
P(u) (1  u)3P  3u(1  u)2P  3u2 (1  u)P  u3P
0 1 2 3

X-coordinate of a point on curve

P (u)  (1  u)3P  3u(1  u)2P  3u2 (1  u)P  u3P
x 0x 1x 2x 3x

Px (u)  35(1  u)  75u(1  u)  45u (1  u)  5u3

3 2 2

Px (u)  35(1  3u  3u2  u3 )  75u(1  2u  u2 )  45u2  45u3  5u3

Px (u)  35  105u  105u2  35u3  75u  150u2  75u3  45u2  45u3  5u3
Px (u)  35  30u

Y-coordinate of a point on curve

P (u)  (1  u)3P  3u(1  u)2 P  3u2 (1  u)P  u3P
y 0y 1y 2y 3y

Py (u)  30(1  u)  75u (1  u)  10u

3 2 3

Py (u)  30(1  3u  3u2  u3 )  75u2  75u3  10u3

Py (u)  30  90u  165u2  95u3

The parametric equation of Bezier curve

Px (u)  35  30u
(2.26)
Py (u)  30  90u  165u2  95u3

The points on curve obtained by varying the value of u = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1 in equ.
(2.26) are shown in below table

Point No. 0 2 4 6 8 10
u 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Px (u) 35.0 29.0 23.0 17.0 11.0 5.00
Py (u) 30.0 17.84 14.32 14.88 14.96 10.00

The Bezier curve plotted using the above coordinates is shown in Fig. 2.18.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 2.18
Example 2.8: Plot a Bezier curve using the following control points.
(2,0), (4,3), (5,2), (4,-2), (5,-3) and (6,-2).
P0 = [2 0] P1 = [4 3]
P2 = [5 2] P3 = [4 -2]
P4 = [5 -3] P5 = [6 -2]
n=5
The parametric equation for Bezier curve with 6 control points
P(u) (1  u)5P  5u(1  u)4 P 10u2(1  u)3P 10u3(1  u)2P  5u4 (1  u)P  u5P
0 1 2 3 4 5

P(u)  (1  5u  10u  10u  5u  u )P  5u(1  4u  6u  4u  u )P

2 3 4 5 2 3 4
0 1
 10u2 (1  3u  3u2  u3 )P  10u3 (1  2u  u2 )P  5u4 (1  u)P  u5P
2 3 4 5
P(u)  (1  5u  10u2  10u3  5u4  u5 )P (5u  20u2  30u3  20u4  5u5 )P
0 1
(10u2  30u3  30u4  10u5 )P  (10u3  20u4  10u5 )P  (5u4  5u5 )P  u5P
2 3 4 5
P(u) P (5P  5P )u (10P  20P  10P )u2 (10P  30P  30P  10P )u3
0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
(5P  20P  30P  20P  5P )u4 (P  5P 10P  10P  5P P )u5
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 5

X- coordinate of a point on a curve

P (u) P (5P  5P )u (10P  20P  10P )u2 (10P  30P  30P  10P )u3
x 0x 0x 1x 0x 1x 2x 0x 1x 2x 3x
(5P  20P  30P  20P  5P )u  (P 4
 5P  10P  10P  5P P )u5
0x 1x 2x 3x 4x 0x 1x 2x 3x 4x 5x

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Px (u)  2 (5(2)  5(4))u (10(2)  20(4)  10(5))u2 (10(2)  30(4)  30(5)  10(4))u3
(5(2)  20(4)  30(5)  20(4)  5(5))u4  ((2)  5(4)  10(5)  10(4)  5(5)  (6))u5
Px (u)  2  10u 10u2 10u3  25u4 11u5
Y-coordinate of a point on a curve
P (u) P (5P  5P )u (10P  20P  10P )u2 (10P  30P  30P  10P )u3
y 0y 0y 1y 0y 1y 2y 0y 1y 2y 3y
 (5P  20P  30P  20P  5P )u  (P 4
 5P  10P  10P  5P P )u 5
0y 1y 2y 3y 4y 0y 1y 2y 3y 4y 5y

Py (u)  0 (5(0)  5(3))u (10(0)  20(3)  10(2))u2 (10(0)  30(3)  30(2)  10(2))u3
 (5(0)  20(3)  30(2)  20(2)  5(3))u4 ((0)  5(3)  10(2)  10(2)  5(3)  (2))u5
Py (u)  15u  40u2 10u3  25u4 12u5
The parametric equation of Bezier curve
Px (u)  2  10u  10u2  10u3  25u4  11u5 (2.27)
Py (u)  15u  40u  10u  25u  12u
2 3 4 5

The points on curve obtained by varying the value of u from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.1 in
equ.(2.27) are shown in below table

Point No. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
u 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Px (u) 2 2.89 3.56 4.01 4.29 4.47 4.62 4.82 5.12 5.52 6.00
Py (u) 0 1.11 1.52 1.34 0.76 -0.06 -0.93 -1.68 -2.17 -2.29 -2.00

Fig. 2.19

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 B-Spline Curve:
 B-Spline curves are proper and powerful generalization of Bezier curve.
 They are very similar to Bezier curve and are also defined with the help of
characteristic polygon.
 The major advantage of B-Spline curve is due to its ability to control the curve
shape locally, as opposed to global control (see Fig. 2.20).

Fig. 2.20 Local Control of a B-Spline Curve

 B-Spline curves allow a local control over the shape of the spline curve.
 B-Spline curves allow us to vary the control points without changing the degree of
the polynomial (i.e. number of control points can be added or subtracted).
 The degree of the curve is independent of the number of control points (i.e. four
control points can generate a linear, quadratic or cubic curve).
 It gives better control over the shape of curve.
 They are more complex compared to Bezier curves.
 B-spline curve defined by n + 1 control points Pi is given by
n

P(u)   Pi Ni ,k (u), 0  u  umax (2.28)

i 0

Ni,k(u) are the B-spline functions. Thus, the B-spline curves have a B-spline basis.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Rational curves
 A rational curve is defined by the algebraic ratio of two polynomials while a
nonrational curve is defined by one polynomial.
 The formulation of rational curves requires the introduction of homogeneous
space and the homogeneous coordinates. The homogeneous space is four-
dimensional space. A point in three dimensional with coordinates (x, y, z) is
represented in the homogeneous space by the coordinates (x*, y*, z*, h),where h
is a scalar factor. The relationship between the two types of coordinates is
x* y* z*
x y z
h h h
 A rational B-spline curve defined by n + 1 control points Pi is given by
n

P(u)   Pi Ri ,k (u), 0  u  umax (2.29)

i 0

 Ri,k(u) are the rational B-spline functions and are given by

R (u)  hiNi ,k (u)
i ,k n

h N i i ,k (u)
i 0

 The above equation shows that Ri,k(u) are a generalization of the nonrational basis
functions Ni,k(u). If we substitute hi = 1 in the equation, Ri,k(u) = Ni,k(u). The rational
basis functions Ri,k(u) have nearly all the analytic and geometric characteristics of
their nonrational B-spline counterparts.
 The main difference between rational and nonrational B-spline curves is the ability
to use hi at each control point to control the behavior of the rational B-splines (or
rational curves in general).
 Thus, similarly to the knot vector, one can define a homogeneous coordinate
vector H = [h0 h1 h2 h3 . . . hn]T at the control points P0, P1, . . ., Pn of the rational B-
spline curve. The choice of the H vector controls the behavior of the curve.
 A rational B-spline is considered a unified representation that can define a variety
of curves and surfaces. The premise is that it can represent all wireframe, surface
and solid entities. This allows unification and conversion from one modeling
technique to another. Such an approach has some drawbacks, including the loss of
information on simple shapes.
 For example, if a circular cylinder (hole) is represented by a B-spline, some data on
the specific curve type may be lost unless it is carried along. Data including the fact
that the part feature was a cylinder would be useful to manufacturing to identify it
as a hole to be drilled or bored rather than a surface to be milled.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

2.4. Surface Modeling
 The surface model is an extension of wire frame model which involves providing a
surface representation making the object look solid to the viewer.
 Surface systems were in fact the first CAD systems to raise the possibility of
integrating the whole industrial process of design and analysis through to the next
stages of production and quality control, using the computer as an intermediary.
 Shape design and representation of complex objects such as car, ship, aircraft and
castings cannot be achieved by a wire frame model. In such cases, surface models
are preferred for representing the objects with precision and accuracy.
 These models also find widespread applications in companies manufacturing
forgings, castings and molded products. Such articles are characterized by
smoothly curved shapes with blended edges which are not easily represented by
conventional engineering drawings.
 Another difficulty for designers with wire frame modelers is to obtain good
visualization of their ideas. The surface modeler is ideal for such products as the
entire surface is represented; allowing the computer to generate very realistic
shaded surface pictures.
 Most surface modelers come equipped with rendering features. In this, the model
once created is then provided with surface properties. For example, the surface
may be given a property which may make the object appear corroded or made of
brass or any such effects.
 A huge material library is generally made available to select the desired surface
effect. One can also define different kinds of lights, such as spot lights, ambient
lights, etc. in a 3D space and generate a photorealistic image of the object. This
feature is highly used in automobile and styling industries for determining the
aesthetic appeal of the object being designed.
 Advanced surface modelers go beyond representation and to some extent can be
used for property calculations as well. The surface model can be used for
generating NC tool paths for continuous path machining, making it an ideal mode
for integrating CAD / CAM. A surface modeler can be considered as an extension of
a wire frame.
 A wire frame model can be easily extracted from a surface model. It should be
remembered that surface models only store the geometry of their corresponding
objects and not the topology of these objects. To generate a surface model, a user
typically starts with a wire frame model and then connects them with the desired
surfaces.
 Once the product has been surface modeled, its geometry may be used directly in
the design of the mould or die which is to be made. Essential calculations can usually
be performed automatically by the computer such as for example the determination
of the volume enclosed by a mould. This gives an immediate idea of the volume of
raw material needed to make the product.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

  Kinds of Surfaces

Fig. 2.21 Effect of Mesh Size on Object Visualization

 To create a surface, data related to the desired shape is required. The choice of the
surface is dependent on the application. In order to visualize surfaces, a mesh of
m x n in size is displayed. The mesh size is controllable and is in the form of criss-
cross on the surface. The mesh size plays an important role in proper visualization as
can be seen in the objects shown in Fig. 2.21. However, it should be noted that finer
the mesh size of surface entities, longer is the time required by the software to
construct and modify the entities.
 A system may need two boundaries to create a ruled surface or might require one
entity to create a surface of revolution. Surfaces provided by CAD / CAM software
are either analytical or synthetic.
The following are descriptions of major surface entities provided by CAD/CAM systems:
1. Plane Surface: This is the simplest surface. It requires three noncoincident points to
define an infinite plane. The plane surface can be used to generate cross-sectional
views by intersecting a surface model with it, generate cross sections for mass
property calculations, or other similar applications where a plane is needed. Fig. 2.22
shows a plane surface.

Fig. 2.22 Plane Surface

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

2. Ruled (lofted) Surface: This is a linear surface. It interpolates linearly between two
boundary curves that define the surface (rails). Rails can be any wireframe entity.
This entity is ideal to represent surfaces that do not have any twists or kinks. Fig.
2.23 gives some examples.

Fig. 2.23 Ruled Surface

3. Surface of Revolution: This is an axisymmetric surface that can model axisymmetric
objects. It is generated by rotating a planar wireframe entity in space about the axis
of symmetry a certain angle (Fig. 2.24).

Fig. 2.24 Surface of Revolution

4. Tabulated Cylinder: This is a surface generated by translating a planar curve a
certain distance along a specified direction (axis of the cylinder) as shown in Fig.
2.25. The plane of the curve is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. It is used to
generate surfaces that have identical curved cross sections. The word "tabulated" is
borrowed from the APT language terminology.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 2.25 Tabulated Cylinder
5. Bezier surface: This is a surface that approximates given input data. It is different
from the previous surfaces in that it is a synthetic surface. Similarly to the Bezier
curve, it does not pass through all given data points. It is a general surface that
permits twists and kinks (Fig. 2.26). The Bezier surface allows only global control of
the surface.

Fig. 2.26 Bezier Surface

6. B-spline surface: This is a surface that can approximate or interpolate given input
data (Fig. 2.27). It is a synthetic surface. It is a general surface like the Bezier surface
but with the advantage of permitting local control of the surface.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 2.27 B-spline Surface
7. Coons Patch: The above surfaces are used with either open boundaries or given data
points. The Coons patch is used to create a surface using curves that form closed
boundaries (Fig. 2.28).

Fig. 2.28 Coons Patch

8. Fillet surface: This is a B-spline surface that blends two surfaces together (Fig. 2.29).
The two original surfaces may or may not be trimmed.

Fig. 2.29 Fillet Surface

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

9. Offset surface: Existing surfaces can be offset to create new ones identical in shape
but may have different dimensions. It is a useful surface to use to speed up surface
construction. For example, to create a hollow cylinder, the outer or inner cylinder
can be created using a cylinder command and the other one can be created by an
offset command. Offset surface command becomes very efficient to use if the
original surface is a composite one. Figure 2.30 shows an offset surface.

Fig. 2.30 Offset Surface

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Tutorial Questions
1. Write DDA Algorithm for Line generation.
2. Write Bresenham’s Algorithm for Curve generation.
3. Explain properties, equation and blending of cubic spline.
4. Explain properties, equation and blending of Bezier curves.
5. Explain properties, and advantages of B-Splines and NURBS.
6. Explain various types of surfaces.

QUESTION BANK
1. Write DDA Algorithm for Line generation.
2. Write Bresenham’s Algorithm for Curve generation.
3. Explain properties, equation and blending of cubic spline.
4. Explain properties, equation and blending of Bezier curves.
5. Explain properties, and advantages of B-Splines and NURBS.
6. Explain various types of surfaces.
 UNIT 3
MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATION OF SOLIDS
Course Objective:
Understand the Mathematical representations of solids used in geometric construction.
Course Outcome:
Understand and develop the Mathematical representations of solids used in geometric
construction.
NO OF LECTURE HOURS: 7
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

(2 to 3 objectives)

1. Geometry and Topology of Geometry of Understanding geometry and

Solids Solids topology of solids (B5, B6)

2. Comparison of wireframe, Comparing Learning Comparison of wireframe,

surface and solid models wireframe, surface and solid models (B3, B5)
surface and solid
models

3. Properties of solid model Solid model Learning about Properties of solid

properties model (B4, B5)

4. Properties of representation Representation Learning properties of representation

schemes schemes schemes (B4, B5)
5. Concept of Half-spaces, Half spaces and Learning about Concept of Half-
Boolean operations. Boolean spaces, Boolean operations. (B4, B5)
operations
6. Schemes: B-rep, CSG, Sweep Schemes Learning about Schemes: B-rep, CSG,
representation, ASM Sweep representation, ASM (B4, B5)
7. Primitive instancing, Cell Schemes Learning about Primitive instancing,
Decomposition and Octree Cell Decomposition and Octree
encoding encoding (B4, B5)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Wire Frame Modeling
 A geometric model of an object is created by using the two-dimensional geometric
entities such as: points, lines, curves, circles etc.
 Very often, designers build physical models to help in the visualization of a design. This
may require the construction of skeleton model using wires to represent the edges of an
object or component.
 Wire frame modeling is used in computer aided engineering techniques and also to
facilitate the production of various projected views to aid visualization.
 The model appears like a frame constructed out of wire hence it is called as WIRE FRAME
model.
 It is simple to construct.
 It requires less computer memory for storage compare to other types of geometric
models.
 The time required to retrieve, edit or update is less for wire-frame models compare to
other types of geometric models.
 It is more ambiguous to interpret the wire-frame model (see Fig. 3.1).

Fig. 3.1 Ambiguity in Wire frame Model

 Calculation of the properties, such as mass, volume, moment of inertia etc., is not
possible.
 It is difficult and time consuming to generate wire-frame model for complicated objects.
 It requires more input data compare to others as it requires co-ordinates of each node
and their connectivity.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Solid Modeling
 To eliminate all kinds of ambiguities in representation and manipulations of the
objects, the solid modeler was developed. Out of the various approaches developed,
one of them was an approach to the design of mechanical parts by treating them as
combinations of simple building blocks like cylinders and cuboids.
 Such solid modelers or volume modelers can hold complete unambiguous
representations of the geometry of a wide range of solid objects. The completeness
of the information contained in a solid model allows the automatic production of
realistic images of a shape and automation of the process of interference checking.
 Furthermore, interfaces can interrogate the model and extract lot of useful data. The
model can also serve as a means of geometric input for finite element analysis or
even manufacturing tasks such as the generation of instructions for numerically
controlled machining.
 Solid modelers store more information (geometry and topology) than wireframe or
surface modelers (geometry only). Both wireframe and surface models are incapable
of handling spatial addressability as well as verifying that the model is well formed,
the latter meaning that these models cannot verify whether two objects occupy the
same space.
 Surface models provide a precise definition of surfaces and can handle complex
geometries, they are slow to render, are computationally intensive and do not
further CAD/CAM automation and integration goals. A shaded surface model is by no
means considered a solid model.
 On the other hand, solid modeling produces accurate designs, provides complete
three-dimensional definition, improves the quality of design, improves visualization
and has potential for functional automation and integration.
 However solid modeling has some limitations. For example, it cannot automatically
create other models from the solid definition and neither can it automatically use
data created in other models to create a solid. In addition, solid modeling has not
been proven for large-scale production applications.
 Other limitations such as slow rendering and computations as well as poor user
interface are fading away with the rapid enhancement of both hardware and
software.
Geometry and Topology
 The difference between geometry and topology is illustrated in Fig. 3.2. Geometry
(sometimes called metric information) is the actual dimensions that define the
entities of the object.
 The geometry that defines the object shown in Fig. 3.2 is the lengths of lines L 1, L2
and L3, angles between the lines and the radius R and the center P 1 of the half-circle.
 Topology (sometimes called combinatorial structure), on the other hand, is the
connectivity and associativity of the object entities.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

  It has to do with the notion of neighborhood; that is, it determines the relational
information between object entities.
 The topology of the object shown in Fig. 3.2b can be stated as follows: L1 shares a
vertex (point) with L2 and C1, L2 shares a vertex with L1 and L3, L3 shares a vertex with
L2 and C1, L1 and L3 do not overlap and P1 lies outside the object. Based on these
definitions, neither geometry nor topology alone can completely model objects.
 Wireframe and surface models deal only with geometrical information of objects and
are therefore considered incomplete and ambiguous. From a user point of view,
geometry is visible and topology is considered to be nongraphical relational
information that is stored in solid model databases and are not visible to users.

Fig. 3.2 Difference between Geometry and Topology of an Object

Properties of solid model
The properties that a solid model or an abstract solid should capture mathematically can be
stated as follows:
1. Rigidity This implies that the shape of a solid model is invariant and does not depend
on the model location or orientation in space.
2. Homogeneous three-dimensionality Solid boundaries must be in contact with the
interior. No isolated or dangling boundaries (see Fig. 3.3) should be permitted.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 3. Finiteness and finite describability The former property means that the size of the
solid is not infinite while the latter ensures that a limited amount of information can
describe the solid. The latter property is needed in order to be able to store solid
models into computers whose storage space is always limited. It should be noted
that the former property does not include the latter and vice versa. For example, a
cylinder which may have a finite radius and length may be described by an infinite
number of planar faces.
4. Closure under rigid motion and regularized boolean operations This property
ensures that manipulation of solids by moving them in space or changing them via
boolean operations must produce other valid solids.
5. Boundary determinism The boundary of a solid must contain the solid and hence
must determine distinctively the interior of the solid.

Fig. 3.3
Properties of representation scheme
The formal properties of representation schemes which determine their usefulness in
geometric modeling can be stated as follows:
1. Domain: The domain of a representation scheme is the class of objects that the
scheme can represent or it is the geometric coverage of the scheme.
2. Validity The validity of a representation scheme is determined by its range, that is,
the set of valid representations or models it can produce. If a scheme produces an
invalid model, the CAD/CAM system in use may crash or the model database may be
lost or corrupted if an algorithm is invoked on the model database. Validity checks
can be achieved in three ways: test the resulting databases via a given algorithm,
build checks into the scheme generator itself, or design scheme elements (such as
primitives) that can be manipulated via a given syntax.
3. Completeness or Unambiguousness This property determines the ability of the
scheme to support analysis and other engineering applications. A complete scheme
must provide models with sufficient data for any geometric calculation to be
performed on them.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Uniqueness This property is useful to determine object equality. It is a custom in
algebra to check for uniqueness but it is rare to do so in geometry. This is because it
is difficult to develop algorithms to detect the equivalence of two objects and it is
computationally expensive to implement these algorithms if they exist. Positional
and permutational nonuniqueness are two simple cases shown in fig. 3.4. Fig. 3.4(a)
shows a two dimensional rectangular solid (of side lengths a and b) in two different
positions and orientations. The two-dimensional solid S shown in fig. 3.4(b) is divided
into three blocks A, B and C that can be unioned in a different order.

Fig. 3.4
The informal properties of representation schemes for solid models
The primary considerations for storing the model in a computer are:
i. Conciseness (i.e. how much computer memory is occupied by the model of a shape).
ii. Efficiency (i.e. how much computer time is used in creating, interrogating or
modifying the model of a shape.
 In general, there is a trade-off between the usage of memory and usage of time. For
example, if we use up storage for 'remembering' the properties of a shape, then we
do not need to spend a lot of time recalculating these properties every time one
needs the information.
 Representation schemes where the elements of a shape are explicitly held in the
model are termed as evaluated representations. Conversely, those where the
elements must be calculated from implicit instructions for construction of the shape
are known as unevaluated representations.
 Depending on the application, either of the above approaches can be used.
Representation of solid in a computer can be divided into 6 general classes as
follows:
1. Pure Primitive Instancing
 This technique is used to define numerous families of objects, each defined
parametrically as shown in Fig. 3.5. A particular solid is specified completely by giving
the family to which it belongs, together with a limited set of parameter values.
However, such systems can only define a restricted range of objects which have
been predefined in the system.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Pin parameters (D, T, and L)
Fig. 3.5 Pure Primitive Instancing
2. Generalized Sweeps
 A solid is defined in terms of volumes swept out by 2D or 3D lamina as they move
along a curve. Some of the typical objects generated by this method are shown in
Fig. 3.6.

(a) Translational Sweep

(b) Translational Sweep over Path

(c) Rotational Sweep

Fig. 3.6 Generalised Sweep

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3. Spatial Occupancy Enumeration
 Under this technique 3D objects are divided up into cubical cells at a particular
resolution and objects are modeled by listing the cells that they occupy as shown in
Fig. 3.7 (a) to (c).
 Smaller the size of the cube, more accurate would be the representation. This
representation scheme requires large amounts of storage for reasonable resolution
and thus has not been favored in practical systems.

(a) First Level (b) Second Level

(c) Third Level (d) Fourth Level (e) Fifth Level

Fig. 3.7 Spatial Occupancy Enumeration and Octree Decomposition
 However, this problem has been reduced in a development of a scheme known as
Octree decomposition [Refer Fig. 3.7 (d) & (e)]. In this scheme only those cells that
are occupied at each level are stored and sub-division is only necessary for partially
occupied cells.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

4. Cellular Decomposition
 An object is represented in this scheme by a list of cells it occupies, but the cells are
not necessarily cubes, nor are they necessarily identical (see Fig. 3.8)

Fig. 3.8 Cellular Decomposition (9 Cell Decomposition)

5. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG or C-rep)
 This method is also called as the Building Block Approach. The CSG system allows the
user to build the model out of solid graphic primitives, such as rectangular blocks,
spheres, cylinders, cones, wedges and torus. These shapes and the mathematical
representation of these blocks are shown below in Fig. 3.9.

Fig. 3.9 Solid Primitives

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 This is one of the most popular method of representing and building complex solids.
ACSG model is based on the principle that any physical object can be divided into a
set of bounded primitives which can be combined in a certain manner to form the
physical object.
 Structuring and combining the primitives of the solid model in the graphics database,
is achieved by the use of Boolean operations. Consider two solids A and B, sharing a
common volume of space as shown in Fig. 3.10 (a). The Boolean operations that can
be performed on them and the resultant solid are shown in Fig. 3.10 (b) to (d).

Fig. 3.10 Boolean Operations

 CSG method has a procedural advantage in the initial formulation of the model. It is
relatively easy to construct a precise solid model out of regular solid primitives by
adding, subtracting and intersecting the components. CSG uses the unevaluated
representation format which results in compact file of the model in the database.
However, this results in more computations to evaluate the model.
 The data representation of CSG objects is represented by a binary tree. The binary
tree gives the complete information of how individual primitives are combined to
represent the object. The number of primitives thus decides the number of Boolean
operations required to construct the binary tree.
 The balanced distribution of the tree is desired to achieve minimum computations
while modifying or interrogating a model. A balanced tree can be defined as a tree
whose left and right subtrees have almost an equal number of nodes.
 The creation of balanced or an unbalanced tree is solely dependent on the user and
is related to how the primitives are combined. Ideally the model should be built from
an almost central position and branch out in two opposite directions.
 For example, while doing a union operation, it is preferred to combine all the unions
together, rather than achieving unions of objects two at a time. A balanced and an
unbalanced method of building the same object is shown in Fig. 3.11.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 (a) Unbalanced Tree

(b) Balanced Tree

Fig. 3.11 CSG Tree
 The CSG tree is organized upside down, with the root representing the composite
object at the top and primitives called as leaves at the bottom.
6. Boundary Representation (B-rep)
 The boundary representation approach or B-rep is a popular method of solid
representation. It can be considered as an extension of the wire frame model with
additional face information added.
 In a B-rep, the solid is considered to be bounded by its surface and has its interior
and exterior. The surface consists of a set of well organized faces. The two important
areas for B-rep models are the topological and geometrical information.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Topological information provides the relationship about vertices, edges and faces
similar to that used in a wire frame model. In addition to connectivity, topological
information also includes orientation of edges and faces. Geometric information is
usually in terms of equations of the edges and the faces.
 In a B-rep model, the information related to the orientation of the face is important.
Generally external vertices of the face are numbered in anti-clockwise fashion. The
normal vector of the face as determined by the right hand rule must point to the
exterior of the surface.
 Consider the three faces as shown in Fig. 3.12. One of the methods to describe the
top face would be 4-3-5-6. On similar lines the other two faces could be described as
1-2-3-4 and 1-4-6-3.

Fig. 3.12 Orientation of External Face

 However, not all surfaces can be oriented in this way. If the surface of the solid can
be oriented, it is called orientable; otherwise it is non-orientable.
 The CSG and the B-rep information of the same solid are shown in Fig. 3.13. The CSG
model is achieved by the union of the two primitives whereas the facial information
for B-rep is as shown.
 It is seen that B-rep systems store only the bounding surfaces of the solid, however it
is still possible to compute geometrical and mass properties by virtue of numerical
methods such as Gauss Divergence Theorem, which relates volume integrals to
surface ones. The speed and accuracy of computations vary as per the kind of
surfaces used.
 B-rep systems are extremely useful when unusual shapes are encountered, which
would not be possible with CSG. This kind of situation occurs in aircraft fuselage,
wing shapes and in automobile body styling. Such shapes would be extremely
difficult to build by CSG.

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  In B-rep models, the solid is represented as an evaluated data structure. This
requires more storage space but does not demand nearly the same computation as
would be required for CSG to reconstruct the image. This makes it more efficient.

(a) CSG Information (b) B-rep Information

Fig. 3.13 Comparison of CSG and B-rep Information
 Another advantage of B-rep is that, it is relatively simple to convert back and forth
between a boundary representation and a corresponding wire-frame model. The
reason is that the model’s boundary definition is similar to the wire-frame definition
which facilitates conversion of one form to another.
Table 3.1 Comparison of C-rep and B-rep
C-rep B-rep
It does not store only the bounding It stores only the bounding surfaces of the
surfaces of the solid. solid.
It is easy to create precise solid model It does not use standard primitives.
using standard primitives.
It is difficult to create unusual shapes. It is easy to create unusual shapes.
Less storage space. More storage space.
More computation time required. Less computation time required.
It is relatively difficult to convert back and It is relatively simple to convert back and
forth between a C-rep and a corresponding forth between a boundary representation
wire-frame model. and a corresponding wire-frame model.

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7. Skinning or Lofting
 This method is uses a number of two dimensional profiles for generating a three
dimensional object. The two dimensional profiles are arranged as desired and a
three dimensional space curve is made to pass through these profiles.
 A skinning operation is then done for generating a solid. A typical example is shown
in Fig. 3.14. This method is useful in modeling turbine blades, aerofoil shapes,
manifolds, volute chambers and other such surfaces.

Fig. 3.14 Skinning

8. Miscellaneous Modeling Techniques:
 A complete modeler should have certain additional features which would simplify
the modeling procedures. A few of them are described below:
(a) Tweaking :
 A model can be created by using a combination of methods as described previously.
The ability available to the user to modify or move a vertex or a face and to see the
effect of that on the model is referred to as tweaking. This feature is useful in styling
automobile bodies and other consumer products.
(b) Filleting :
 Most engineering and consumer components are provided with smooth edges or
generous fillets. This not only improves the stress distribution, but also prevents
injury while handling them.
 If filleting procedure is done through CSG method, it would require a lot of data
input for achieving it. Instead direct procedures which allow the user to input the
properties of a fillet are necessary. This would result in a quick filleting operation,
without a large database.
 A typical filleting operation in wire frame and rendered modes are shown in Fig.
3.15.

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 Each of the solid modeling representation discussed above has its advantages and
disadvantages. The CSG and B-rep approaches are widely used in major CAD
softwares.
 In a single representation modeler, the representation is usually B-rep, with certain
commands such as sweep and a few CSG like inputs are accepted. However, the
storing of data is in B-rep format only.
 As compared to this, a dual representation modeler has a primary representation
scheme as CSG. (e. g. PADL-2). Here the modeler has both B-rep and CSG
representations. However, in this case, B-rep is derived internally and the user has
no control over it.
 In a truly hybrid modeler there are two independent internal representations of CSG
and B-rep. With these systems, the users have the capability to construct the
geometric model by either approach (CSG or B-rep), whichever is more appropriate
to the particular problem.

Fig. 3.15 Filleting Operation

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 Half spaces
 Half-spaces form a basic representation scheme for bounded solids. By combining
half-spaces (using set operations) in a building block fashion, various solids can be
constructed. Half-spaces are usually unbounded geometric entities; each one of
them divides the representation space into two infinite portions, one filled with
material and the other empty. Surfaces can be considered half-space boundaries and
half-spaces can be considered directed surfaces.
 A half-space is defined as a regular point set in three dimensional coordinate system
(E3) as follows:
H = {P: P Є E3 and f(P) < 0}
 where P is a point in E3 and f(P) = 0 defines the surface equation of the half-space
boundaries. Half-spaces can be combined together using set operations to create
complex objects.
 The most used half spaces are:
Planar half-space: H={(x, y, z): z < 0}
Cylindrical half-space: H={x, y, z): x2 + y2 < R2}
Spherical half-space: H = {(x, y, z): x2 + y2 + z2 < R2}
Conical half-space: H = {(x, y, z): x2 + y2 < [(tan α/2)z]2]}
Toroidal half-space: H = {(x, y, z): (x2 + y2 + z2 – R22 – R12)2 < 4 R22(R12– z2)}

Fig. 3.16

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 Tutorial Questions
1. Explain about Wireframe modeling.
2. Explain about geometry and topology of solids.
3. Explain properties of solids.
4. Explain properties of representation schemes.
5. Explain concept of Half spaces.
6. Explain about different Boolean operations.
7. Explain about B-representations.

QUESTION BANK
1. Explain about Wireframe modeling.
2. Explain about geometry, topology and properties of solids.
3. Explain properties of representation schemes.
4. Explain concept of Half spaces.
5. Explain about B-representations.

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 UNIT 4
GEOMETRIC
TRANSFORMATIONS
Course Objective:
Understand the transformation of 2D and 3D parts.
Course Outcome:
Able to get the transformed in 2D and 3D using transformation equations.

NO OF LECTURE HOURS: 7
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

(2 to 3 objectives)

1. Geometric Transformations: Geometric Understanding homogeneous

Homogeneous Transformations representation of Geometric
representation Transformations (B5, B6)

2. Translation, Scaling, Translation, Learning about Translation, Scaling,

Scaling, Reflection (B4, B5)
Reflection

3. Reflection Reflection Learning about Reflection (B4, B5)

4. Rotation, Shearing in 2D Rotation, Learning about Rotation, Shearing in

Shearing in 2D 2D (B4, B5)

5. Orthographic projections Orthographic Learning about Orthographic

projections projections (B4, B5)
6. Perspective projections Perspective Learning about Perspective
projections projections (B4, B5)
7. Examples Examples Solving different examples (B2, B3)

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 Introduction
• Computer graphics can be defined as creation, storage and manipulation of
pictures and drawings by means of a computer.
• It enhances the power of communication between the computer and its users.
• It allows representation of huge set of numbers in the form of a graph or a
picture which helps in better understanding of the characteristic and pattern of
data.
• A viewing surface of a raster scan display is divided into an array of pixels. A CRT
screen is made up of horizontal and vertical lines.
• Each horizontal line is made up of pixels. The memory of the computer is a
collection of bits and a bit can take any value either 0 or 1.
• Each pixel can be represented by one bit in memory. This memory is called frame
buffer.
• If a line as to be represented, then the pixel must be made bright to display the line.
• The pixel value of bit must be 1 in memory. This is known as scan conversion.

Geometric Transformations
• All changes performed on the graphic image are done by changing the database
of the original picture. These changes are called as transformations.
• Transformations allow the user to uniformly change the entire picture. An object
created by the user is stored in the form of a database. If the database, which
represents the object, is changed, the object also would change. This method is
used to alter the orientation, scale, position of the drawing.
• In general, geometric transformations can be defined as the change done to the
database by performing certain mathematical operations on it, so as to produce
the desired change in the image.
Translation

Fig. 4.1 Translation

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 • When every entity of a geometric model remains parallel to its initial position, the
transformation is called as translation.
• Translating a model therefore implies that every point on it moves by an equal given
distance in a given direction. A translation involves moving of an element from one
location to another.

Scaling
• Scaling transformation alters the size of an object. Scaling can be uniform (i.e. equal
in both X and Y directions) or non-uniform (i.e. different in X and Y directions).
• To achieve scaling, the original coordinates would be multiplied by scaling factor.

Fig. 4.2 Scaling

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This equation can also be represented in matrix form as follows:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Reflection or Mirror
• Reflection is the process of obtaining a mirror of the original shape.
• This is an important transformation and is used quite often as many engineered
products are symmetrical.
• The following transformation matrices as shown in Fig, 4.3 when multiplied to the
original point produce a Reflection or Mirror.
• Thus, in general,
P'  P  M

Fig. 4.3 Reflection

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Rotation
• Rotation is an important transformation and allows the user to view the objects from
different angles.
• It can also be used to create entities arranged in circular arrays, by creating the
entity once and then rotating / copying it to the desired positions on the
circumference. This would allow the user to create an array of objects.

Fig. 4.4 Rotation

• Let point P (x, y) be rotated by an angle θ about the origin O.
P x y r Cos  r Sin 
• Let the rotated point be represented as :
P'   x' y'  r Cos  +  r Sin  + 
P'  r  Cos Cos - Sin Sin  r  Sin Cos  Cos Sin 
P'   x Cos  y Sin  x Sin + y Cos 
• This can be expressed as:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING






Homogeneous Representation
• Many a times it becomes necessary to combine the above mentioned individual
transformations in order to achieve the required results. In such cases the combined
transformation matrix can be obtained by multiplying the respective transformation
matrices.
• However, care should to be taken that the order of the matrix multiplication be done
in the same way as that of the transformations as follows.
[P*] = [Tn] [Tn – 1] [Tn – 2+ ……..*T3] [T2] [T1] ................................ (4.1)
In Eq. (4.1) all the transformation matrices should be multiplicative type.
• The following form should be used to convert the translation into a multiplication
form.
P *   x * y * 1
1 0 0
  0 1 0  x y 1
dX dY 1
• Hence the translation matrix in multiplication form can be given as
1 0 0
MT    0 1 0
dX dY 1
• This is termed as homogeneous representation. In homogeneous representation, an
n-dimensional space is mapped into (n+1) dimensional space. Thus a 2 dimensional
point [x y] is represented by 3 dimensions as [x y 1]. Homogeneous representation
can be experienced in the following situations.
Rotation about an arbitrary Point
• The transformation given earlier for rotation is about the origin of the axes system. It
may sometimes be necessary to get the rotation about any arbitrary base point as
shown in Fig. 4.5. To derive the necessary transformation matrix, the following
complex procedure comprising the followin1g three points would be required.
(i) Translate the point A to O, the origin of the axes system.
(ii) Rotate the object by the given angle.
(iii) Translate the point back to its original position.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 • The transformation matrices for the above operations in the given sequence are the
following.

Fig. 4.5 Rotation about an arbitrary Point

Reflection about an arbitrary Line

• Similar to the above, there are times when the reflection is to be taken about an
arbitrary line as shown in Fig. 4.6.
1. Translate the mirror line along Y axis such that line passes through the origin, O.
2. Rotate the mirror line such that it coincides with the X axis.
3. Mirror the object through the X axis.
4. Rotate the mirror line back to the original angle with X axis.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 5. Translate the mirror line along the Y axis back to the original position.
Following are the transformation matrices for the above operations in the given sequence.

Fig. 4.6 Reflection Transformation about on arbitrary Line







DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 
Shearing
• A transformation that distorts the shape of an object such that the transformed
shape appears as if the object were composed of internal layers that had been
caused to slide over each other is called a shear.
2D Shearing
• Two common shearing transformations are those that shift coordinate x values and
those that shift y values.
• An x-direction shear relative to the x axis is produced with the transformation matrix
1 shx 0
0 1 0 ………(4.2)

0 0 1
• which transforms coordinate positions as
x’ = x + shx . y, y’ = y ………(4.3)
• Any real number can be assigned to the shear parameter sh x. A coordinate position
(x, y) is then shifted horizontally by an amount proportional to its distance (y value)
from the x axis (y = 0).
• Setting shx to 2, for example, changes the square in Fig. 4.7 into a parallelogram.
Negative values for shx shift coordinate positions to the left.

Fig. 4.7 A unit square (a) is converted to a parallelogram (b) using the x direction shear
matrix 4.2 with shx = 2.
• We can generate x-direction shears relative to other reference lines with


DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 
• with coordinate positions transformed as
x’ = x + shx (y – yref), y’ = y ............................................ (4.5)
• An example of this shearing transformation is given in Fig.4.8 for a shear parameter
value of 1 /2 relative to the line yref = –1.

Fig. 4.8 A unit square (a) is transformed to a shifted parallelogram (b)

with shx = 1/2 and yref = –1 in the shear matrix 4.4.
• A y-direction shear relative to line x = xref is generated with transformation matrix

• which generates transformed coordinate positions

x’ = x, y’ = y + shy (x – xref) ………(4.7)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Fig. 4.9 A unit square (a) is turned into a shifted parallelogram (b) with parameter values sh y
= 1/2 and xref = –1 in the y direction using shearing transformation 4.6.
• This transformation shifts a coordinate position vertically by an amount proportional
to its distance from the reference line x = xref. Fig. 4.9 illustrates the conversion of a
square into a parallelogram with shy = 1/2 and xref = –1.
• Shearing operations can be expressed as sequences of basic transformations. The x-
direction shear matrix 4.2, for example, can be written as a composite
transformation involving a series of rotation and scaling matrices that would scale
the unit square of Fig. 4.9 along its diagonal, while maintaining the original lengths
and orientations of edges parallel to the x axis.
• Shifts in the positions of objects relative to shearing reference lines are equivalent to
translations.

Projections of Geometric Models

• Databases of geometric models can only be viewed and examined if they can be
displayed in various views on a display device or screen. Viewing a three dimensional
model is a rather complex process due to the fact that display devices can only
display graphics on two-dimensional screens.
• This mismatch between three-dimensional models and two-dimensional screens can
be resolved by utilizing projections that transform three-dimensional models onto a
two-dimensional projection plane. Various views of a model can be generated using
various projection planes.
• To define a projection, a center of projection and a projection plane must be defined
as shown in Fig. 4.11. To obtain the projection of an entity (a line connecting points
P1 and P2 in the figure), projection rays (called projectors) are constructed by
connecting the center of projection with each point of the entity.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 4.11 Projection Definition
• The intersections of these projectors with the projection plane define the projected
points which are connected to produce the projected entity. There are two different
types of projections based on the location of the center of projection relative to the
projection plane.
• If the center is at a finite distance from the plane, perspective projection results and
all the projectors meet at the center. If, on the other hand, the center is at an infinite
distance, all the projectors become parallel (meet at infinity) and parallel projection
results. Perspective projection is usually a part of perspective, or projective,
geometry.
• Such geometry does not preserve parallelism, that is, no two lines are parallel.
Parallel projection is a part of affine geometry which is identical to Euclidean
geometry. In affine geometry, parallelism is an important concept and therefore is
preserved.
Perspective projection
• Perspective projection creates an artistic effect that adds some realism to
perspective views. As can be seen from Fig. 4.11(a), the size of an entity is inversely
proportional to its distance from the center of projection; that is, the closer the
entity to the center, the larger its size is.
• Perspective views are not popular among engineers and draftsmen because actual
dimensions and angles of objects and therefore shapes, cannot be preserved, which
implies that measurements cannot be taken from perspective views directly. In
addition, perspective projection does not preserve parallelism.
• In order to define perspective projection, a centre of projection and a projection
plane are required. The centre of projection is placed along the z-axis and the image
is projected onto z = 0 or xy plane.
• The transformation of perspective projection is given by:
P* = Po P
where
1 0 0 0

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 0 1 0 0 
PO   
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 1 / d 1 
P is the given point.
P* is the reflected point.
d is the distance between the centre of projection to the projection plane.

Orthographic Projection
• Unlike perspective projection, parallel projection preserves actual dimensions and
shapes of objects. It also preserves parallelism. Angles are preserved only on faces of
the object which are parallel to the projection plane.
• There are two types of parallel projections based on the relation between the
direction of projection and the projection plane. If this direction is normal to the
projection plane, orthographic projection and views result.
• The orthographic projection system is to include a total of six projecting planes in
any direction required for complete description.
• A typical example is shown in Fig. 4.12 where the object is enclosed in a box such
that there are 6 mutually perpendicular projecting planes on which all possible 6
views of the object can be projected.
• This would help in obtaining all the details of the object as shown in Fig. 4.13. The
visible lines are shown with the help of continuous lines while those that are not
visible are shown by means of broken lines.

Fig. 4.12 An object Enclosed in a Cube for Obtaining Various Parallel Projections

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 • Obtaining the orthographic projections is relatively straight forward because of the
parallel projections involved. The top view can be obtained by setting z = 0. The
transformation matrix will then be
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
M  
 TOP   0 
0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 1 
• For obtaining the front view, y = 0 and then the resulting coordinates (x, z) will be
rotated by 900 such that the Z axis coincides with the Y axis. The transformation
matrix will then be
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 
MFRONT    
0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 1 




Fig. 4.13 Orthographic Projection of an Object.
• Similarly for obtaining the right side view, x = 0 and then the coordinate system is
rotated such that Y axis coincides with the X axis and the Z axis coincides with the Y
axis. The transformation matrix will then be
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 
MRIGHT    
0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 1 


DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Example 4.1
A triangle ABC with vertices A (32, 22), B (88, 20) and C (32, 82) is to be scaled by a factor
of 0.6 about a point X (50, 42). Determine the co-ordinates of the vertices for the scaled
triangle.
Solution:
Data given:
Sx = Sy = 0.6
Scaling about a point X (50, 42)
So, first translate the object to origin then scale the object and then translate back the
scaled object to the given point X (50, 42).
A'B'C'  ABC T  S T 1
32 22 1  1 0 0 0.6 0 0  1 0 0
A'B'C'  88 20 1  0 1 0  0 0.6 0  0 1 0
    
32 82 1  50 42 1  0 0 1 50 42 1
32 22 1  1 0 0 0.6 0 0
A'B'C'  88 20 1  0 1 0  0 0.6 0 
   
32 82 1  50 42 1  50 42 1
32 22 1 0.6 0 0

A B C  88 20 1 0
' ' '   0.6 0 
  
32 82 1  20 16.8 1
39.2 30 1
A'B'C'  72.8 28.8 1
 
39.2 66 1
Answer: New vertices are A’ (39.2, 30), B’ (72.8, 28.8) and C’ (39.2, 66).

Example 4.2
Using transformation matrix, determine the new co-ordinates of triangle ABC with
vertices A (0, 0), B (3, 2) and C (2, 3) after it is rotated by 45° clockwise about origin.
Solution:
Data given:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Rotation about origin 45° clockwise
Hence, θ = -45°
A'B'C'  ABC R
0 0 1  Cos(45 ) Sin(45) 0


A B C  3 2 1 Sin(45 ) Cos( 45 ) 0 
' ' '

   
2 3 1  0 0 
1 
0 0 1 0.707 0.707 0
A'B'C'  3 2 1 0.707 0.707 0
2 3 1  0 0 1
 0 0 0
A'B'C'  3.536 0.707 0
 
3.536 0.707 1
Answer: New vertices are A’ (0, 0), B’ (3.536, -0.707) and C’ (3.536, 0.707).
Example 4.3
A rectangle ABCD has vertices A (1, 1), B (2, 1), C (2, 3) and D (1, 3). It has to be rotated by
30° counter clockwise about a point P (3, 2). Determine the new co-ordinates of the
vertices for the rectangle.
Solution:
Data given:
Rotation about a point 45° counter clockwise
Hence, θ = 45°
Rotation about a point P (3, 2), so, first translate the object to origin then rotate the object
and then translate back the rotated object to the given point P (3, 2).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 

Answer: New vertices are A’ (1.768, 0.134), B’ (2.634, 0.634), C’ (1.634, 2.366) and D’ (0.768,
1.866).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Example 4.4
A triangle ABC with vertices at A (0, 0), B (4, 0) and C (2, 3) is given. Perform the following
operations for it.
(i) Translation through 4 and 2 units along X and Y direction respectively,
(ii) Rotation through 90° in counter clockwise direction about the new position of
point C.
Solution:
(i) Translation by tx = 4 and ty = 2.
A'B'C'  ABC T
0 0 1  1 0 0 
 
A B C  4 0 1  0 1 0 
' ' ' 

 3 1 t x t y 1 

2
0 0 1 1 0 0
A B C  4 0 1 0 1 0
' ' ' 
  
2 3 1 4 2 1

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 4 2 1
A'B'C'  8 2 1
 
6 5 1
Answer: New vertices are A’ (4, 2), B’ (8, 2) and C’ (6, 5).
(ii) Rotation about the new point C’ (6, 5) through 90° counter-clockwise.
Hence, θ = 90°
Rotation about a point C’ (6, 5), so, first translate the object to origin then rotate the
object and then translate back the rotated object to the given point C’ (6, 5).

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Answer: New vertices are A’’ (9, 3), B’’ (9, 7) and C’’ (6, 5).

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Example 4.5
The co-ordinates of three vertices of the triangle are P (50, 20), Q (110, 20) and R (80, 60).
Determine the co-ordinates of the vertices for the new reflected triangle if it is to be
reflected about:
(i) x-axis,
(ii) Line y = x.
Solution:
(i) Reflection about x-axis
P'Q'R'  PQR Mx
 50 20 1 1 0 0
P'Q'R'  110 20 1 0 1 0
  
 80 60 1 0 0 1
 50 20 1
P'Q'R'  110 20 1
 
 80 60 1
Answer: New vertices are P’ (50, -20), Q’ (110, -20) and R’ (80, -60).
(ii) Reflection about line y = x
P'Q'R'  PQR M(yx)
 50 20 1 0 1 0
P Q R  110 20 1 1 0 0 
' ' ' 
  
 80 60 1 0 0 1
20 50 1
P Q R  20 110 1
' ' ' 
 
60 80 1
Answer: New vertices are P’ (20, 50), Q’ (20, 110) and R’ (60, 80).
Example 4.6
Reflect the diamond shape polygon whose vertices are A (-2, 0), B (0, -1) C (2, 0) and D (0,
1) about an arbitrary line L which is represented by equation y = 0.5 x + 1.
Solution:
Data given:
Reflect the polygon about line y = 0.5 x + 1
So, first translate the object to origin, and then rotate the object such that the line coincides
with x-axis, then reflect the polygon about x-axis, then rotate back and then translate back.
y = 0.5 x + 1
m  0.5  tan
  tan1 0.5  26.565 (Clockwise)
  26.565
Also, when x = 0, y = 1 and when y = 0, x = -2.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 Tutorial Questions
1. Explain about homogeneous representation of geometric transformations.
2. Explain about translation, scaling, rotation and reflecion.
3. Explain about shearing in 2D.
4. Explain about orthographic projections.
5. Explain about perspective projections.

QUESTION BANK
1. A triangle ABC with vertices A (32, 22), B (88, 20) and C (32, 82) is to be scaled
by a factor of 0.6 about a point X (50, 42). Determine the co-ordinates of the
vertices for the scaled triangle.
2. Using transformation matrix, determine the new co-ordinates of triangle ABC
with vertices A (0, 0), B (3, 2) and C (2, 3) after it is rotated by 45° clockwise
about origin.
3. A triangle ABC with vertices at A (0, 0), B (4, 0) and C (2, 3) is given. Perform the
following operations for it.
(a) Translation through 4 and 2 units along X and Y direction respectively,
(b) Rotation through 90° in counter clockwise direction about the new
position of point C.
4. Explain about shearing in 2D.
5. Explain about orthographic and perspective projections.
 UNIT 5
VISUAL REALISM
Course Objective:

Understand the algorithm for visualization of various 2D and 3D parts.

Course Outcome:

Understand and develop the algorithm for visualization of various 2D and 3D parts.

NO OF LECTURE HOURS: 8

LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

(2 to 3 objectives)

1. Introduction to Visual Visual Realism Learning about Visual Realism (B4,

Realism B5)

2. Hidden Line Removal Hidden Line Learning about Hidden Line Removal
Algorithm Removal Algorithm (B4, B5)
Algorithm

3. Hidden surface Removal Hidden surface Learning about Hidden surface

Algorithm Removal Removal Algorithm (B4, B5)
Algorithm

4. Hidden solid Removal Hidden solid Learning about Hidden solid Removal
Algorithm Removal Algorithm (B4, B5)
Algorithm

5. Shading Shading Understanding Shading (B5, B6)

6. Coloring Coloring Understanding Coloring (B5, B6)

7. Computer Animation Computer Learning about Computer Animation.

Animation (B4, B5)
8. Computer Animation Computer Learning about Computer Animation.
Animation (B4, B5)

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VISUAL REALISM

Introduction

Visual Realism is a method for interpreting picture data fed into a computer and for creating
pictures from difficult multidimensional data sets. Visualization can be classified as :

· Visualization in geometric modeling

· Visualization in scientific computing.

Visualization in geometric modeling is helpful in finding connection in the design

applications. By shading the parts with various shadows, colors and transparency, the designer can
recognize undesired unknown interferences. In the design of complex surfaces shading with
different texture characteristics can use to find any undesired quick modifications in surface
changes.

Visualization in computing is viewed as a technique of geometric modeling. It changes the

data in numerical form into picture display, allowing users to view their simulations and
computations. Visualization offers a process of seeing the hidden. Visualization in scientific
computing is of great interest to engineers during the design process.

Existing visualization methods are:

· Parallel projections

· Perspective projection.

· Hidden line removal

· Hidden surface removal

· Hidden solid removal

· Shaded models

Hidden line and surface removal methods remove the uncertainty of the displays of 3D models and
is accepted the first step towards visual realism. Shaded images can only be created for surface and
solid models. In multiple step shading process, the first step is removing the hidden surfaces / solids
and second step is shades the visible area only. Shaded images provide the maximum level of
visualization.

The processes of hidden removal need huge amounts of computing times and also upper end
hardware services. The creation and maintenance of such a models are become complex. Hence,

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creating real time images needs higher end computers with the shading algorithms embedded into
the hardware.

Hidden line removal

Hidden line removal (HLR) is the method of computing which edges are not hidden by the faces of
parts for a specified view and the display of parts in the projection of a model into a 2D plane. Hidden
line removal is utilized by a CAD to display the visual lines. It is considered that information openly
exists to define a 2D wireframe model as well as the 3D topological information. Typically, the best
algorithm is required for viewing this information from an available part representation.

Fig 5.1: Hidden Line Removal

3D parts are simply manufactured and frequently happen in a CAD design of such a part. In
addition, the degrees of freedom are adequate to show the majority of models and are not
overwhelming in the number of constraints to be forced. Also, almost all the surface-surface
intersections and shadow computations can be calculated analytically which results in significant
savings in the number of computations over numerical methods.

1. Priority algorithm

Priority algorithm is basis on organization all the polygons in the view according to the biggest Z-
coordinate value of each. If a face intersects more than one face, other visibility tests besides the Z-
depth required to solve any issue. This step comprises purposes of wrapper.
Imagines that objects are modeled with lines and lines are generated where surfaces join. If only the
visible surfaces are created then the invisible lines are automatically removed.

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 Fig 5.2: Priority Algorithm
Face Priority
ABCE 1
ADFG 1
DCEF 1
ABHG 2
EFGH 2
BCEH 2

ABCD, ADFG, DCEF are given higher priority-1. Hence, all lines in this faces are visible, that is, AB,
BC, CD, DA, AD, DF, FG, AG, DC, CE, EF and DF are visible.

AGHB, EFGH, BCEH are given lower priority-2. Hence, all lines in this faces other than priority-1 are
invisible, that is BH, EH and GH. These lines must be eliminated.

Hidden surface removal

The hidden surface removal is the procedure used to find which surfaces are not visible from a
certain view. A hidden surface removal algorithm is a solution to the visibility issue, which was one
of the first key issues in the field of three dimensional graphics.

The procedure of hidden surface identification is called as hiding, and such an algorithm is called a
‘hider’. Hidden surface identification is essential to render a 3D image properly, so that one cannot
see through walls in virtual reality.

Hidden surface identification is a method by which surfaces which should not be visible to the user
are prohibited from being rendered. In spite of benefits in hardware potential there is still a
requirement for difficult rendering algorithms.

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The accountability of a rendering engine is to permit for bigger world spaces and as the world’s size
approaches infinity the rendering engine should not slow down but maintain at constant speed.

There are many methods for hidden surface identification. They are basically a work out in sorting,
and generally vary in the order in which the sort is executed and how the problem is subdivided.
Sorting more values of graphics primitives is generally done by divide.

1. Z - buffer algorithm

Fig 5.3: Z – buffer Algorithm

In Z-buffering, the depth of ‘Z’value is verified against available depth value. If the present
pixel is behind the pixel in the Z-buffer, the pixel is eliminated, or else it is shaded and its depth value
changes the one in the Z-buffer. Z-buffering helps dynamic visuals easily, and is presently introduced
effectively in graphics hardware.

· Depth buffering is one of the easiest hidden surface algorithms

· It keeps follow of the space to nearest object at every pixel position.
· Initialized to most negative z value.
· when image being drawn, if its z coordinate at a position is higher than z buffer value, it is
drawn, and new z coordinate value is stored; or else, it is not drawn
· If a line in three dimensional is being drawn, then the middle z values are interpolated: linear
interpolation for polygons, and can calculate z for more difficult surfaces.

Algorithm: loop on y;

loop on x;

zbuf[x,y] = infinity;

loop on objects

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 {

loop on y within y range of this object

loop on x within x range of this scan line of this object

if z(x,y) < zbuf[x,y] compute z of this object at this pixel & test zbuf[x,y] = z(x,y)
update z-buffer

image[x,y] = shade(x,y) update image (typically RGB)

Basic operations:

1. compute y range of an object

2. compute x range of a given scan line of an object

3. Calculate intersection point of a object with ray through pixel position (x,y).

2.Painter’salgorithm

The painter's algorithm is called as a priority fill, is one of the easiest results to the visibility issue in
three dimensional graphics. When projecting a 3D view onto a 2D screen, it is essential at various
points to be finalized which polygons are visible, and which polygons are hidden.

Fig 5.4: Painter’s Algorithm

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 The ‘painter's algorithm’ shows to the method employed by most of the painters of painting
remote parts of a scene before parts which are close thereby hiding some areas of distant parts. The
painter's algorithm arranges all the polygons in a view by their depth and then paints them in this
order, extreme to closest. It will paint over the existing parts that are usually not visible hence solving
the visibility issue at the cost of having painted invisible areas of distant objects. The ordering used
by the algorithm is referred a 'depth order', and does not have to respect the distances to the parts
of the scene: the important characteristics of this ordering is, somewhat, that if one object has
ambiguous part of another then the first object is painted after the object that it is ambiguous. Thus,
a suitable ordering can be explained as a topological ordering of a directed acyclic graph showing
between objects.

Algorithm:

sort objects by depth, splitting if necessary to handle intersections; loop on objects (drawing
from back to front)

loop on y within y range of this object

loop on x within x range of this scan line of this object

image[x,y] = shade(x,y);

Basic operations:

1. compute ‘y’range of an object

2. compute ‘x’range of a given scan line of an object

3. compute intersection point of a given object with ray via pixel point (x,y).

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 4. evaluate depth of two objects, determine if A is in front of B, or B is in front of A, if they don’t
overlap in xy, or if they intersect

5. divide one object by another object

Advantage of painter's algorithm is the inner loops are quite easy and limitation is sorting
operation.

3. Warnock algorithm

The Warnock algorithm is a hidden surface algorithm developed by John Warnock that is
classically used in the area of graphics. It explains the issues of rendering a difficult image by recursive
subdivision of a view until regions are attained that is trivial to evaluate. Similarly, if the view is simple
to compute effectively then it is rendered; else it is split into tiny parts which are likewise evaluated
for simplicity. This is a algorithm with run-time of O(np), where p is the number of pixels in the
viewport and n is the number of polygons.

The inputs for Warnock algorithm are detail of polygons and a viewport. The good case is that if the
detail of polygons is very simple then creates the polygons in the viewport. The continuous step is to
divide the viewport into four equally sized quadrants and to recursively identify the algorithm for
each quadrant, with a polygon list changed such that it contains polygons that are detectable in that
quadrant.

Fig.5.5. Warnock algorithm

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1. Initialize the region.

2. Generate list of polygons by sorting them with their z values.

3. Remove polygons which are outside the area.

4. Identify relationship of each polygon.

5. Execute visibility decision analysis:

a)Fill area with background color if all polygons are disjoint,

b)Fill entire area with background color and fill part of polygon contained in area with color
of polygon if there is only one contained polygon,

c) If there is a single surrounding polygon but not contained then fill area with color of
surrounding polygon.

d)Set pixel to the color of polygon which is closer to view if region of the pixel (x,y) and if
neither of (a) to (d) applies calculate z- coordinate at pixel (x,y) of polygons.

6. If none of above is correct then subdivide the area and Go to Step 2.

Hidden Solid Removal

The hidden solid removal issue involves the view of solid models with hidden line or surface
eliminated. Available hidden line algorithm and hidden surface algorithms are useable to hidden solid
elimination of B-rep models.

The following techniques to display CSG models:

1. Transfer the CSG model into a boundary model.

2. Use a spatial subdivision strategy.

3. Based on ray sorting.

1.Ray-Tracing algorithm

A ray tracing is a method for creating an image by tracing the path of light via pixels in an image
plane and reproducing the effects of its meets with virtual objects. The procedure is capable
of creating a high degree of visual realism, generally higher than that of usual scan line
techniques, but at a better computational. This creates ray tracing excellent suited for uses

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 where the image can be rendered gradually ahead of time, similar to still images and film and
TV visual effects, and more badly suited for real time environment like video games where
speed is very important. Ray tracing is simulating a wide range of optical effects, such as
scattering, reflection and refraction.

Fig.5.6. Ray-Tracing algorithm

Ray-Tracing algorithm
For every pixel in image

Generate ray from eye point passing via this pixel Initialize Nearest ‘T’to ‘INFINITY’

Initialize Nearest Object to NULL

For each object in scene

If ray intersects this image

If t of intersection is less than Nearest T

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 Set Nearest T to t of the intersection

Set Nearest image to this object

If Nearest image is NULL

Paint this pixel with background color

}
Else

Shoot a ray to every light source to check if in shadow

If surface is reflective, generate reflection ray

If transparent, generate refraction ray

Apply Nearest Object and Nearest T to execute shading function

Paint this pixel with color result of shading function

Optical ray tracing explains a technique for creating visual images constructed in three
dimensional graphics environments, with higher photorealism than either ray casting rendering
practices. It executes by tracing a path from an imaginary eye via every pixel in a virtual display, and
computing the color of the object visible via it.

Displays in ray tracing are explained mathematically by a programmer. Displays may also
incorporate data from 3D models and images captured like a digital photography.

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 In general, every ray must be tested for intersection with a few subsets of all the objects in
the view. Once the nearest object has been selected, the algorithm will calculate the receiving light
at the point of intersection, study the material properties of the object, and join this information to
compute the finishing color of the pixel. One of the major limitations of algorithm, the reflective or
translucent materials may need additional rays to be re-cast into the scene.

Advantages of Ray tracing:

1. A realistic simulation of lighting over other rendering.

2. An effect such as reflections and shadows is easy and effective.

3. Simple to implement yet yielding impressive visual results.

Limitation of ray tracing:

Scan line algorithms use data consistency to divide computations between pixels, while ray
tracing normally begins the process a new, treating every eye ray separately.

Shading
Shading defines to describe depth perception in three dimensioning models by different
levels of darkness. Shading is applied in drawing for describes levels of darkness on paper by adding
media heavy densely shade for darker regions, and less densely for lighter regions.

There are different techniques of shading with cross hatching where perpendicular lines of changing
closeness are drawn in a grid pattern to shade an object. The closer the lines are combining, the
darker the area appears. Similarly, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter the area shows.

Fig.5.7. Shading

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 Fig.5.8. Image with edge lines

The image shown in figure 5.8 has the faces of the box rendered, but all in the similar color. Edge
lines have been rendered here as well which creates the image easier to view.

Fig.5.9. Image without edge lines

The image shown in figure 5.9 is the same model rendered without edge lines. It is complicated to
advise where one face of the box ends and the next starts.

Fig.5.10. Image with Shading

The image shown in figure 5.10 has shading enabled which makes the image extra realistic and
makes it easier to view which face is which.

Shading techniques:

In computer graphics, shading submits to the procedure of changing the color of an object in the 3D
view, a photorealistic effect to be based on its angle to lights and its distance from lights. Shading is
performed through the rendering procedure by a program called a ‘Shader’. Flat shading and Smooth
shading are the two major techniques using in Computer graphics.

Goal: To use the lighting and reflectance model to shade facets of a polygonal mesh — that is, to
assign intensities to pixels to give the impression of opaque surfaces rather than wireframes.

Assume we’re given the following:

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• - center of projection in world coordinates

• - point light source location

• Ia, Id - intensities of ambient and directional light sources
• ra, rd, rs - coefficients for ambient, diffuse, and specular reflections
• α - exponent to control width of highlights

Flat Shading
With flat shading, each triangle of a mesh is filled with a single color.

For a triangle with counterclockwise vertices p¯ 1, p¯2, and p¯3, as seen from the outside, let the
midpoint be

with normal

Then we may find the intensity at p¯ using the Phong model and fill the polygon with that:

Flat shading is a simple approach to filling polygons with color, but can be inaccurate for smooth
surfaces, and shiny surfaces. For smooth surfaces—which are often tesselated and represented as
polyhedra, using flat shading can lead to a very strong faceting effect. In other words, the surface
looks very much like a polyhedron, rather than the smooth surface it’s supposed to be. This is because
our visual system is very sensitive to variations in shading, and so using flat shading makes faces really
look flat.

Interpolative Shading

The idea of interpolative shading is to avoid computing the full lighting equation at each pixel by
interpolating quantites at the vertices of the faces.

Given vertices p¯1, p¯2, and p¯3, we need to compute the normals for each vertex, compute the
radiances for each vertex, project onto the window in device coordinates, and fill the polygon using
scan conversion.

There are two methods used for interpolative shading:

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Gouraud Shading The radiance values are computed at the vertices and then linearly interpolated
within each triangle. This is the form of shading implemented in OpenGL.

Phong shading The normal values at each vertex are linearly interpolated within each triangle, and
the radiance is computed at each pixel. Gouraud shading is more efficient, but Phong shading is more
accurate. When will Gouraud shading give worse results?

Shading in OpenGL

OpenGL only directly supports Gouraud shading or flat shading. Gouraud is enabled by default,
computing vertex colors, and interpolating colors across triangle faces. Flat shading can be enabled
with

glShadeModel(GL FLAT).

This renders an entire face with the color of a single vertex, giving a faceted appearance.

Fig 5.11: Left: Flat shading of a triangle mesh in OpenGL. Right: Gouraud shading.

Note that the mesh appears smooth, although the coarseness of the geometry is visible at the
silhouettes of the mesh.

With pixel shaders on programmable graphics hardware, it is possible to achieve Phong shading by
using a small program to compute the illumination at each pixel with interpolated normals. It is
even possible to use a normal map to assign arbitrary normals within faces, with a pixel shader
using these normals to compute the illumination.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COLORING

Color plays an important role in images. The light enters our eyes in the form of a spectrum with
variation in the wavelengths. Human beings have three kinds of cones in their eyes that respond to
different colors with different wavelengths. The basic colors red, green and blue represents long,
medium and short wavelengths respectively. Introduction

The human vision is three-dimensional known as principle of trichromacy. According to this, the
spectrum of light is encoded into three values that correspond to the amount of light absorbed by
each type of cone.

Color Models

Color is a complex, interdisciplinary phenomenon spanning from psychology to physics. As the

name suggests, color model is a model of colors. It can be defined as an organized system, which is
used for the creation of a wide variety of colors starting from a small collection of primary colors.

Color models are of two types, as depicted in the figure 5.12.

Fig 5.12: Color Models

1. Additive Color Models:

Additive color models are those color models, which use light for displaying colors. In these
color models, colors are seen as an aftereffect of transmitted light.

The RGB color model is an example of an additive color model.

2. Subtractive Color Models:
Subtractive color models are those color models, which use printing inks for displaying
colors. In these color models, colors are seen as an aftereffect of reflected light.
The CMYK color model is an example of a subtractive color model.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 RGB Color Model
The RGB color model is an additive color model, which uses three primary colors, namely,
red (R), green (G), and blue (B). These primary colors can further be used to create
secondary colors, such as yellow, white, and magenta. Computers can display approximately
16.7 million colors using this color model.

In RGB model, every color’s measurement is done with a value that ranges from 0 to 255,
where 0 means no light, and value 255 means maximum intensity. This (0 to 255) is the limit
of storing information in 1 byte of computer memory. In RGB model, 3 bytes (24 bits) of
information are needed for defining the three primary colors RGB.

A large percentage of the visible band of colors can be represented by mixing red, green,
and blue (RGB) colored light in various intensities and proportions. RGB colors are also
called as additive colors, as they combine to create white color.

In other words, adding all colors creates white, that is, all visible wavelengths are
transmitted back to the eye. Additive colors are used for monitors, video, and lighting.

A unit cube is used to represent the color space of RGB colors. This unit cube is placed at
origin in its standard position. The figure 5.13 depicts the color co-ordinate system with the
three primary colors of RGB model, that is, RGB.

Fig 5.13: Color Coordinate System with RGB Colors

Each of the RGB (primary) colors can take up the intensity value ranging from 0 being the lowest to
1 being the highest. When these primary colors are mixed at different intensity levels, they produce
a variety of colors including cyan, magenta, yellow, and white. The collection of all the colors

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

available by such a linear combination of red, green, and blue forms the cube-shaped RGB color
space as shown in figure 5.13.

The corner of the RGB color cube that is at the origin of the co-ordinate system corresponds to
black. The corner of the cube that is diagonally or obliquely opposite to the origin represents white.
The oblique line connecting white and black corresponds to all the gray colors between white and
black and it is called as the gray axis. With the help of this RGB color model, a random color within
the cubic color space can be specified by its color co-ordinates, that is red, green, and blue.

(0,0,0) is for black, (1,1,1) is for white, (1,1,0) for yellow.

The color specification using the RGB color model is an additive process. First, black color is
considered and the suitable primary component is added on to yield a preferred color.

CMYK Color Model

The colors cyan (C), magenta (M), yellow (Y) and black (K) (CMYK) is a subtractive color model,
which is mainly used in color print production. This color model is also called as a complementary
RGB model.

In this color model, inks of four colors, cyan (C), magenta (M), yellow (Y) and black (K) are used for
defining colors. Every color has some ink amount, whose measurement is done by using percent
starting from 0 to 100, where a value of 100 signifies the application of inks at full intensity. This
CMY color model describes colors using a subtractive process, which closely matches the working
principles of the printer.

The color space of CMYK color model is called subtractive. The application of inks of cyan, magenta,
yellow, and black color to a surface that is white in color, is done for subtracting some color from
that white surface. This method of subtraction finally leads to the creation of the final color. This
model is generally called as CMY model.

The subtraction of all colors by the CMY combination at full intensity renders black color.
Nevertheless, because of impurities that exist in the available CMY inks, complete and equal
intensity is made impossible, and filtering of some RGB light takes place, which renders a muddy
brown color. Thus, with the addition of the black ink CMY color model takes place.

In the CMY model, first the white color is considered, and the suitable primary components are
taken away, to yield a preferred color.

Example: If we subtract or decrease the red color from white color, the color that remains consists
of green and blue, which is nothing but the cyan color.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

If the above example is considered from another perspective, the quantity of cyan, the
complementary color of red, can be used in order to control the amount of red, which is equal to
one minus the amount of cyan color.

The following figure 5.14 depicts a co-ordinate system using the three primary complementary
colors which are cyan (C), magenta (M), and yellow (Y).

Fig 5.14: Color Co-ordinate System with CMY Colors

In the figure 5.14, the corner of the CMY color cube, that is, at (0, 0, 0) represents white color,
whereas the corner of the cube that is at (1, 1, 1) represents black color. CMY color model is mainly
used for the production of printed materials. This is the reason why CMY color model is an
important element in printing.

COMPUTER ANIMATION

Introduction

Visual effect is part of advanced computer graphics that pertains to the various processes through
which images are created and manipulated in the absence of a live environment. When the sets are
costly to setup and when it becomes impossible to capture a film or object, visual effects come into
picture. They provide realistic image of the live environment. The images in visual effects are
computer generated and can be seen in most of the movies. Visual effects provide more appeal to
the story line of a movie and are generally completed after the completion of movie but are pre-
planned before the commencement of a movie shoot. Visual effects employ graphic designing,
modeling, animation and other relevant software but special effects are made on the sets. Today,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

one can find the application of computer graphics and visual effects and animation in diverse fields
such as science, technology, military, advertising, entertainment, and so on.

Animation

The word animation is derived from the Latin word ‘anima’ which is the animating principle. It is
used as a translation for the Greek word psyche and relates to the Christian concept of soul. Hence,
animation can be defined as a technique of giving soul to drawings and art work which are lifeless.
Earliest examples of animation can be traced back to the Paleolithic cave paintings where attempts
were made to capture the phenomenon of motion drawing.

The term animation is used to display a sequence of images rapidly employing either 2-D or 3-D art
works or positions of various models to bring out an illusionary movement to the models and art
work. This is done through optical illusion of motion by employing the phenomenon of persistence
of vision in which images can be created and depicted in several ways. Motion picture or video
programs are the commonly used methods of animation.

Persistence of Vision

Persistence of vision is a phenomenon of the eye where an afterimage is thought to persist for one
twenty-fifth of a second on the retina of the eye. In the visual perception phenomenon, the eye is
not considered as a camera. The phi phenomenon has a more constructionist approach towards
cinema while persistence of vision is a realistic approach.

Today, persistence of vision is an accepted phenomenon in the history of cinema. In the early days,
it was determined that a frame rate of less than 16 frames per second had enabled the mind to see
flashing images. Audiences, sometimes interpret motion at ten frames per second or even slower.
The modern theatrical films run at 24 frames per second.

The two perceptual illusions are:

1. Phi Phenomenon: This method is an optical illusion defined by Max Wertheimer in the Gestalt
psychology in 1912. It is based on the principle that the human eye is able to perceive movements
based on pieces of information. This is similar to the succession of images. The speed of the images
per second can be observed for the phi phenomenon. The figure 5.15 shows the phi phenomenon
and depicts how an object moves in a circular motion with constant speed.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 5.15: Phi Phenomenon

2. Beta Movement: The beta movement is considered to be a perceptual illusion where the brain
merges two more still images, imaginatively to be in motion. This phenomenon creates an illusion
of motion both towards and away from the viewer. Consider phenomenon of a viewer watching a
screen. This screen is projected with two images in succession. The first image shows a ball on the
left side of the frame, while the second image shows a ball on the right side of the frame. These
images are shown in rapid succession. Thus, as a viewer you can see one ball moving from the left
towards the right but not two balls flashing in succession. When the two objects are of different
size that is when the first image is large and the second image is small. As a viewer, you can only
view that the object is moved away from us.

The following figure 5.16 depicts the beta phenomenon and provides a clear understanding about
how the image keeps changing its position.

Fig 5.16: Beta Phenomenon

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Animation came into existence with the advent of cinematography. Georges Melies is considered as
the creator of special effect films and is also the first person to have used animation with special
effects. George Melies came up with the stop motion animation. In this method, the rolling camera
was stopped to make changes in the scene and then continued to roll the film.

This technique was discovered accidently when George Melies’ camera broke while shooting a
moving bus. Immediately after this incident, George restarted shooting; this time he happened to
shoot a hearse pass by. Finally, George observed that he had transformed the moving bus into a
moving hearse. This made George analyze about what he had created. This concept was later used
in the field of animation and George Melies is considered to be a great contributor to the field of
animation.

Animated films are also referred to as cartoons, which is an industry of its own today. John
Randolph Bray is a successful producer of animations along with Earl Hurd who came up with the
idea of cel animation process.

The photographs of the drawings are drawn on paper. To create an illusion of movement the
drawings are done in such a way that they slightly differ from the previous one. Then these
drawings are photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called cels. These cels are filled with
paints and are assigned colors on the opposite side of the line drawings. The cels are then
photographed one by one onto motion picture film against a painted background by a rostrum
camera. Cel animation is obsolete now.

Today, drawings with their backgrounds are scanned using a computer system. Software programs
are used to color the drawings and their effects are simulated.

Nowadays, a complete animated film is done in a variety of styles such as the films produced by
Walt Disney to the Cartoon Styles produced by the Warner Brothers.

Computer Animation

Computer animation uses a variety of techniques to be created digitally on a computer. The

following are some of the techniques:

1. 2-D Animation: In 2-D animation, figures are created and edited on the computer by either using
2-D bitmap graphics or by using 2-D vector graphics. This method uses the traditional animation
techniques like tweening, morphing, onion skinning, and interpolated rotoscoping. Foster's Home
for Imaginary Friends, Danny Phantom, Waltz with Bashir, The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy
are some of the examples for 2-D films.

2. 3-D Animation: In 3-D animation the figures are digitally modeled and manipulated using an
animator. A process known as rigging is carried out. In this process to manipulate a mesh, a digital
skeletal structure is used to control the mesh. Techniques like mathematical functions, simulated

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

fur or hair, effects such as fire and water and the use of motion capture, fall under the 3- D
dynamics. Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between 3-D animations and live actions. In such
cases visual effects are used.

Computer Animation is an art to produce moving images. We can define it as a subfield of

computer graphics and animation. When we use animation in a movie or film, it is called CGI
(Computer Generated Imaging).

Application Areas of Animation

Animation is used in various fields. They are:
1. Education: An animated video or animated tutorial is used to increase the learning of the
students. The animation is mostly used in schools, colleges, and training centers.
2. Entertainment: It is a vast area where we can use animations. Various animation methods
are used in cartoons, movies, motion pictures, and TV shows.
3. Advertisement: Animation is also used to make ad films that take less space and captures
the vast attention of the people. It is a better way to provide more information about
products.
4. Medical: Animation is used in medical science. The professionals and the students can easily
visualize the details of human anatomy through medical animation.
5. Retail: The marketers use animation to present the attributes of products to the customers.
6. Computer-Aided Design: Animation plays an important role in CAD. We can use CAD in
automobile designing and many other designing.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 7. Gaming: Animation is widely used in gaming. We can develop 3D games by using animation.
8. Presentation: We can present anything through an animated presentation. Animated
presentation is a better way to represent an idea.
Types of Animation
The Animation is divided into three parts.

 2D: It is also called “2 Dimensional.”2D animation is defined as a process of producing

characters, storyboards, and backgrounds in a two-dimensional environment.
2D animation is a flat animation that only works on two coordinates x-axis(horizontal) and y-
axis(vertical).
The 2D animation uses raster and vector graphics to produce and edit animated images.
For Example– Cartoons (Daffy Duck, Snow White, the jungle book, etc.)
The software used in 2D animation is:
1. Adobe Photoshop
2. Adobe Flash
3. After Effects
4. Encore

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Advantages:
1. Easy to Control.
2. Less Time-Consuming.
3. Less Production Cost.
4. Easy to change.
Disadvantages:
1. Need proper skills to use animation software.
 3D: It is also called “3 Dimensional.” 3D animation is defined as the process of producing
three-dimensional motion images in the digital environment. 3D Animation is used to create
animated scenes through the computer.
We can manipulate 3D objects or models through the 3D animation software.
3D animation works on all three coordinates x-axis(height), y-axis(width) and z-axis(depth).
For Example–
1. Toy Story
2. Jurassic Park
3. The Transformers

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The software used in 3D animation is:
1. ZBrush
2. Houdini
3. Blender
4. Autodesk Maya
The process of producing 3D animations is divided into three parts:
1. Modeling: It is a phase in which we can describe the creation of 3D objects within a specific
scene.
2. Layout and Animation: It is a phase in which we can describe how objects are positioned
and animated within a scene.
3. Rendering: It is a final process. It is a phase in which we can convert 3D objects or images
into 2D objects or images.
Advantages:
1. Motion Communication
2. More Realistic
3. Reusable
Disadvantages:
1. Lack of purity
2. Limited Thought and Ideas
3. VFX: It is also called “Visual Effects.” It is a process in which we can make a mixture of real
shooting (special effects) with animated images (digital effects). It is mostly and widely used
in movie making.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

For Example-
In a movie, we will see the hero flying into the air by using VFX effects.
In the Jurassic Park movie, the dinosaurs are also created by using VFX effects.
The Software used in VFX animation:
1. Nuke
2. After effects
3. 3D Studio Max
4. Adobe Creative Suite 4
This process has been done in two parts-

 Special effects (SFX): The special effects cover all visual effects that occur in live-action.
For Example- Stunt, Any Explosion on set.
 Digital Effects (VFX): It is also called “Visual effects.” It includes different steps by which
photographic assets can create, and imagery can manipulate.
Digital effects mostly include a combination of real photography and computer-aided imagery to
create a realistic environment. The environment would be impossible, costly, and sometimes very
dangerous to shoot in-camera.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Advantages:
1. It helps to show unreal objects.
2. It saves a lot of time.
Disadvantages:
1. Need a Lot of Planning.
2. Overuse of Visual Effects

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Tutorial Questions

1. Explain about visual realism

2. Write Algorithm for hidden line removal.
3. Write Algorithm for hidden surface removal.
4. Write Algorithm for hidden solid removal.
5. Explain about shading.
6. Explain about coloring.
7. Explain about computer animation and its applications.

QUESTION BANK

1. Write Algorithm for hidden line removal.

2. Write Algorithm for hidden surface removal.
3. Write Algorithm for hidden solid removal.
4. Explain about shading and coloring.
5. Explain about computer animation and its applications.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 R09
Code No: C0401
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
M.Tech I - Semester Examinations, March 2011
ADVANCED CAD
(CAD/CAM)
Time: 3hours Max. Marks: 60
Answer any five questions
All questions carry equal marks
---
1 (a) With a neat diagram explain the working of Direct view Storage Tube.
(b) A cubic spline curve is defined by the equation.
P (u) = C3u3 + C2u2 + C1u + C0, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1, where C0, C1, C2 and C3 are the
polynomial Coefficients. Assuming these coefficients are known, find the four
control points that define an identical Bezier curve. [6+6]

2. (a) Explain the parametric representation of a Lofted Surface.

(b) Magnify the triangle with vertices A (0, 0), B(1,1),and C(5,2) to twice its size while
keeping C (5,2) fixed. [6+6]

3. (a) Given the four corners P0(1,1), P1(3,1), P2(3,3) and P3 (4,2). Find the equation of
the Bezier surface.
(b) Discuss the important properties of B-Spline surfaces. [8+4]

4.(a) What is B-representation in solid modeling? Explain the importance in the

construction of the B- representation with examples.
(b) Compare IGES and STEP format of data representation. [8+4]

5.(a) Derive the finite element equation of a two-node bar element using potential energy
method.
(b) Discuss Mass property calculations on CAD/CAM systems. [8+4]

6. (a) List various types of output devices and explain about any two of them.
(b) Compare Segmentation and Trimming. [8+4]

7. (a)What is meant by Tolerance Synthesis? Explain Statistical method of tolerance

synthesis.
(b) Compare analytical and synthetic curves. [8+4]

8. Write short notes on the following :

(a) Graphics Standards
(b) Finite element modeling
(c) Mechanical Tolerances [12]

******
Code No: C0401 R09
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
M.TECH I - SEMESTER EXAMINATIONS, APRIL/MAY - 2012
ADVANCED CAD
(CAD/CAM)
Time: 3hours Max. Marks: 60
Answer any five questions
All questions carry equal marks
---

1.a) With a neat diagram explain the working principle of ink jet printer.
b) A parametric cubic curve passes through the points (0, 0), (2, 4), (4, 3), (5, -2) which are
parameterized at u = 0, ¼, ¾ and 1 respectively. Determine the geometric coefficient
matrix and slope of the curve when u = 0.5.

2.a) Explain the parametric representation of Surface of revolution.

b) Reflect the polygon whose vertices are A(-1,0), B(0,-2), C(1,0) and D(0,2) about the
lines
i) Horizontal line y = 2, and
ii) Vertical line x = 3.

3.a) Given the four corners P0(1,1), P1(3,1), P2(3,3) and P3(4,2). Find the equation of the
bi-cubic surface.
b) Discuss the important properties of Bezier surface.

4.a) What is B-representation in solid modeling? Explain the importance in the construction
of the B- representation with examples.
b) Mention the different types of data formats in CAD/CAM and discuss briefly about any
one of them.

5.a) Derive the finite element equation of a two-node bar element using potential energy
method.
b) Discuss about Mechanical Tolerances in CAD/CAM.

6.a) List various types of input devices and explain about any two of them with neat diagrams.
b) Compare Segmentation and Trimming.

7.a) What is Finite Element Modeling? Discuss its application in Mechanical Engineering
Design.
b) Compare analytical and synthetic curves.

8. Write short notes on the following:

a) COONS patch
b) Constructive Solid Geometry
c) Collaborative Design.

---oo0oo---
 Hall Ticket No Question Paper Code: BCCB01

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(Autonomous)
M.Tech I Semester End Examinations (Regular) - January, 2019
Regulation: IARE–R18
ADVANCED CAD
Time: 3 Hours (CAD/CAM) Max Marks: 70
Answer ONE Question from each Unit
All Questions Carry Equal Marks
All parts of the question must be answered in one place only

UNIT – I

1. (a) Give the details of z-buffer method for hidden surface removal. [7M]
(b) Explain the concept of obtaining a reflection about an arbitrary line starting from the plain
reflection about an axis. [7M]

2. (a) Explain the Gouraud shading procedure for continues shading of surfaces represented by polygon
surfaces. [7M]
(b) If a line is represented by equation 2Y=3X-5, Find out the final position of the midpoint of the
line. The line before the transformation starts at (1,-1) and ends at (5,5). The transformation
being carried is rotation about the origin in the XY plane of 300 in counter-clockwise direction.
[7M]

UNIT – II

3. (a) Derive the parametric equation of cubic Bezier curve. [7M]

(b) Describe the evaluation criteria of CAD/CAM system. [7M]

4. (a) Explain different types of mathematical representation of curve. [7M]

(b) Describe the characteristics of B-spline curve to provide local control of the curve shape. [7M]

UNIT – III

5. (a) What is surface of revolution? Derive its parametric equation. [7M]

(b) Explain various types of analytic surface entities for shape design and to represent complex
objects. [7M]

6. (a) Differentiate between ruled surface and tabulated cylinder with the help of diagram. [7M]
(b) Find the minimum distance between a point in space and a plane. [7M]

Page 1 of 2
 UNIT – IV

7. (a) Define bezier surface and explain with a 4X4 Bezier surface. [7M]
(b) Describe the boundary conditions of a Hermite bicubic surface. [7M]

8. (a) Explain the following surface manipulation (i) Trimming (ii) Intersection [7M]
(b) Explain about blending surface with diagram. [7M]

UNIT – V

9. (a) Describe the architecture, structure and implementation of STEP. [7M]

(b) Explain different types of boolean operators used for creating solid model with example. [7M]

10. (a) What are the different types of elements used in finite element analysis. Explain with example.
[7M]
(b) Write the various types of constraints used in assembly modeling. [7M]

−◦◦ ◦◦−

Page 2 of 2
Roll No. Total No. of Pages : 02
Total No. of Questions : 09
B.Tech.(ME) (2011 Onwards) (Sem.–5)
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING
Subject Code : BTME-502
M.Code : 70603
Time : 3 Hrs. Max. Marks : 60

INSTRUCTION TO CANDIDATES :
1. SECTION-A is COMPULSORY consisting of TEN questions carrying T WO marks
each.
2. SECTION-B contains FIVE questions carrying FIVE marks each and students
have to attempt any FOUR questions.
3. SECTION-C contains T HREE questions carrying T EN marks each and students
have to attempt any T WO questions.

o m
SECTION-A

1. Answer briefly : .r c
p e
a) Give the flowchart of basic design process.
m
a o
p .r c
b) What is Geometric Transformation?

b r e
c) What is constructive solid geometry (CSG) in geometric modelling?

d) What is an interpolant curve?

ap
e) Define a part program.
r p
f) What is fixed and floating zero? b
g) What is part family?

h) Give the data selection systems in CAPP.

i) Discuss the benefits of FMS.

j) What is the function of shading in design?

1 | M- 70603 (S2)-527
 SECTION-B

2. Discuss the functions of Software Graphic package.

3. Discuss and two types of Geometric Transformations using suitable 2-D examples.

4. What is a wireframe model and discuss hidden line removal concept in it?

5. Explain the importance of Adaptive control in machining operations.

6. Discuss various part classification and coding systems used in GT.

SECTION-C

7. a) What is CAPP and discuss the benefits of CAPP.

b) Discuss various types of CAPP systems.

o m
.r c
8. a) Discuss the types of manufacturing systems in CIMS.

p e
b) Discuss different types of layout considerations of FMS.

m
9.
a
a) Discuss the parametric representation of B-spline curve.
o
r p
b) Discuss the equation and characteristics of Bezier curve.
.r c
b p e
p a
b r

NOTE : Disclosure of Identity by writing Mobile No. or Making of passing request on any
page of Answer Sheet will lead to UMC against the Student.

2 | M- 70603 (S2)-527