Analog

Electronics
Dr.Riddhiraj Roy
Editor of IEEE, Chairman of
VLSI Society of South Asia .
 Introduction
Analog electronics is a branch of electronics that deals with signals that
vary continuously over time. Unlike digital electronics, which processes
discrete signals (usually represented by binary values, 0 and 1), analog
electronics focuses on real-world signals, such as sound, light,
temperature, and pressure, that can take on any value within a given
range.
Semiconductor
Fundamentals
Formation of energy bands

Fermi level

Energy- Band Models

Generation

Recombination and Injection of

Carriers

Drift and Diffusion of Carriers

Transport Equations
 Formation of Energy Bands
1. What are Energy Bands?
Energy bands arise from the interaction of atoms when they come close together to form a solid. In isolated atoms,
electrons occupy discrete energy levels. However, when these atoms are brought close to each other, their
outermost electron orbitals overlap, causing these discrete energy levels to split and form continuous ranges of
energies, called energy bands.

2. Formation of Energy Bands

When individual atoms come together to form a crystal lattice, the following occurs:
Electrons in Outer Shells: The outer (valence) electrons of each atom start to interact with those of
neighboring atoms due to their overlapping orbitals.

Energy Level Splitting: The Pauli Exclusion Principle dictates that no two electrons can occupy the same quantum
state simultaneously. As atoms come close, their discrete energy levels split into multiple closely spaced levels
to accommodate all electrons without violating this principle.

Energy Bands Creation: For a large number of atoms, these discrete energy levels form a nearly continuous band
of allowed energy levels. In crystals, these bands are significant because they determine the electronic
properties of materials (e.g., conductors, semiconductors, insulators).
3. Valence Band and Conduction Band

In any crystalline solid, the energy bands can be classified as follows:

Valence Band (VB): This is the highest energy band that is fully occupied by electrons at absolute zero temperature.
Conduction Band (CB): This is the band above the valence band where electrons can move freely and conduct electric
current.
Band Gap (Eg): The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band. This band gap is crucial because
it determines the electrical properties of the material:
Conductors have no band gap or an overlapping band structure.
Semiconductors have a small band gap (e.g., 1.1 eV for silicon).
Insulators have a large band gap.
Sample Problem on Energy Band Calculation
Problem:
Calculate the probability of an electron occupying the conduction band at room
temperature (300 K) in a semiconductor with an energy band gap (E _ g) of 1.1 eV (for
example, silicon). Use the Fermi-Dirac distribution formula.
Solution:
The probability of an electron occupying an energy state at energy E is given by the
Fermi-Dirac distribution function:

where:
E is the energy level (in this case, conduction band minimum),
E_f is the Fermi energy level,
k is the Boltzmann constant -->
T is the temperature in Kelvin.
 Since

is a large number,

, which is a very small

probability, indicating
very few electrons are
thermally excited to the
conduction band at room
temperature.

This problem
demonstrates how the
Fermi-Dirac distribution
can be used to calculate
electron occupancy in
energy bands, a key factor
in understanding
semiconductor behavior.
Let me know if you would
like additional practice
problems or further
clarification!
The
Semiconductor Behavior:
Connection Analog electronics heavily relies on semiconductor devices like
diodes, transistors, and MOSFETs. The working principles of these
WITH ENERGY BANDS 01 devices depend on energy band concepts, such as electron-hole
THE ANALOG ELECTRONICS creation across the valence and conduction bands.

Conduction and Insulation in Components:

Energy bands explain why some materials conduct
electricity well (metals), while others act as insulators. 02
Semiconductors fall in between, allowing controlled
conductivity crucial for analog components like amplifiers
and oscillators.
04
Transistor Operation (BJT and
MOSFET): PN Junction Formation:
The conduction band and
Analog circuits use diodes and transistors made from p-type and n-type
valence band, along with doping,
semiconductors. Understanding energy bands helps explain how PN
allow transistors to switch
between "on" and "off" states. For
03 junctions form, creating barriers that allow for controlled electron flow,
BJTs, it’s essential for the base- which is fundamental to diodes and transistors.
emitter junction, while for
MOSFETs, it influences the
formation of the depletion region
and the gate-controlled channel.
 At
absolute
1. What is the Fermi Level? zero (0 K),
all energy
The Fermi level, denoted as E _ f​, is the energy level at which the probability of an electron levels
occupying it is 50% at absolute zero temperature (0 K). It serves as a reference energy level below E_f
that helps predict the distribution of electrons within energy bands at various temperatures. are fully
occupied
by
2. Fermi Level and Electron Occupation Probability electrons,
and all
levels
The probability that an electron will occupy a given energy state E is given by the Fermi-
above E_f​
Dirac distribution function: are
empty. As
temperatu
re
increases,
electrons
can gain
thermal
energy
where:
and
E is the energy level (in this case, conduction band minimum),
occupy
E_f is the Fermi energy level,
states
k is the Boltzmann constant -->
above the
T is the temperature in Kelvin. Fermi
level.
FERMI LEVEL IN DIFFERENT MATERIALS

Conductors (Metals): Semiconductors: Insulators:

In intrinsic (pure) semiconductors, the In insulators, the Fermi level

In metals, the Fermi level lies Fermi level lies near the middle of the
within the conduction band, lies far below the conduction
band gap between the valence and
allowing electrons to flow conduction bands. At higher band with a large band gap. At
easily. This results in high temperatures, electrons can jump from normal temperatures, it is
electrical conductivity, as the valence band to the conduction band, highly unlikely for electrons to
allowing conduction. In doped have enough energy to jump
there are many available semiconductors:
energy states for electrons to to the conduction band,
n-type: The Fermi level shifts closer
occupy just above the Fermi to the conduction band due to
making insulators poor
level. donor electrons. conductors.
p-type: The Fermi level shifts closer
to the valence band due to
acceptor holes.
FERMI EXPLAINED !!!!
 Determines Conductivity
The Fermi level's position affects the number of
charge carriers in a material. In conductors, it’s
within or near the conduction band; in
semiconductors, it’s in the middle; and in
insulators, it’s far below the conduction band.

Temperature Dependence
Significance of the As temperature increases, some electrons gain
enough energy to jump to higher energy states
above ​E_F, especially in semiconductors. This
behavior is vital in designing electronic devices,

Fermi Level where the Fermi level helps predict current flow
at different temperatures.

Doping Effects in Semiconductors

The introduction of donor or acceptor atoms
in a semiconductor shifts the Fermi level
towards the conduction or valence band,
respectively, increasing either electrons or
holes and thus influencing conductivity.
The Connection :
The Fermi level is directly connected to analog electronics because it plays a crucial role in the
behavior of semiconductor devices like diodes, transistors, and MOSFETs, which are foundational in
analog circuits.

01 02 03 04

Carrier Concentration and PN Junction Behavior:

Conductivity: The Fermi level is key to understanding Threshold Voltage in MOSFETs:
In analog devices, the Fermi level's the equilibrium and charge distribution in The Fermi level helps set the threshold Temperature Dependence and Signal
position determines the PN junctions, which form the basis of voltage in MOSFETs, which is the minimum
concentration of free carriers diodes and transistors. In diodes, the Stability:
voltage needed to create a conductive
(electrons or holes). For instance, in a alignment of Fermi levels across the PN Since the Fermi level shifts slightly with
channel. Threshold voltage directly affects
transistor, shifting the Fermi level junction affects forward and reverse bias temperature, it affects the behavior of
analog circuit behavior, particularly in
through doping controls the carrier conditions, influencing current flow and analog circuits, especially in sensitive
amplifiers where precise voltage control is
concentration, which impacts current voltage response in analog circuits. necessary. amplification and oscillator circuits,
flow and conductivity — essential for
amplifiers and switches in analog
where temperature stability is critical.
circuits.