HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS: EARLY

COUNTING DEVICES

CONTENT

1. Definition and Examples of Early Counting Devices

2. Limitations to the Early Counting Devices

Definition and Examples of Early Counting Devices

Early counting devices are devices that were used in the early days
to perform arithmetic operations such as addition of numbers,
subtraction and multiplication. These devices were used for the
usual barter trade of the early days.
Examples of early counting devices are fingers, toes, stones, sticks,
pebbles, cowries among others.
The history and development of computer can be traced back to the
studies of Mathematics which started with counting. The history of
Mathematics is the history of civilization.
These has led to various computing inventions in search for a tool
that could enable man meet his computational and data processing
needs until we have the computer today.
It was in the process of finding solutions to the problem of counting
that early counting devices emerged. Examples of fingers and toes
method of calculation are seen below;
As time went on, fingers and toes method became ineffective,
especially for large numbers, hence, the emergence of counting and
solving basic arithmetic problems with the use of stones and sticks.

Limitations to the Early Counting Devices

The problems posed by these early counting and data processing

method were enormous. The following are limitations to the early
counting devices:

1. They could not be used for counting large numbers efficiently.

2. It is stressful
3. It required man power
4. It is time consuming
5. It requires more of that device to perform a large number of
counting
EVALUATION

1. Define early counting devices

2. Mention four early counting devices.

MECHANICAL COUNTING AND CALCULATING DEVICES

CONTENT

1. Mechanical Counting and Calculating Devices

Mechanical Counting and Calculating Devices

As a result of the disadvantages of the early counting devices, more

advanced mechanical counting and calculating devices were
invented. Some of these devices are;

1. Abacus (Chinese)
2. Napier’s Bone (John Napier)
3. Slide Rule (William Oughtred)

THE ABACUS

The Abacus is made up of beads threaded on iron rods. The iron

rods are fixed to a rectangular wooden frame. It is used for addition
and subtraction only. It could not carry out complex mathematics.
The Abacus was early used for arithmetic tasks, it was developed in
China about 5000 years ago. It was successful that its use spread
from china to many other countries.
NAPIER’S BONE

After the Abacus, the next significant development was the Napier’s
Bone made by John Napier in the year 1617. John Napier was a
mathematician, physicist, and astronomer from Scotland. His most
important achievement was the discoverery of logarithms. He also
made the use of the decimal point in arithmetic and mathematics
common. Napier’s bone is a manually-operated calculating device
for calculation of products and quotients of numbers.

Using the multiplication tables in the rods, multiplication can be

reduced to addition and division to subtractions. More advanced use
of the rods can even extract square roots. Napier’s bone is not the
same as logarithms, with which Napier’s name is also associated.
The complete device usually includes a base board with a rim; the
user places Napier’s rods inside the rim to carry out multiplication or
division. The board’s left edge is divided into 9 squares, holding the
numbers 1 to 9. The Napier’s rod is made up of of strips of wood,
metal or heavy cardboard. Napier’s bone is three-dimensional,
square in cross section, with four different rods embedded on each
one.

SLIDE RULE

The slide Rule which is also called the slip-stick in the United
States of America was invented around 1620-1630 shortly after John
Napier’s publication of the concept of logarithms. It is a mechanical
analogue computer. The slide rule is used mostly for multiplication,
division, and also for functions as roots, algorithms and
trigonometry, but is not normally used for addition or
subtraction.
Slide rules come in different range of styles and generally appear in
a straight or circular form with a standardized set of markings
(scales) essential to performing mathematical operations.

The use of slide rule continued to grow through the 1950s and
1960s even as digital computing devices were being gradually
introduced.

EVALUATION

1. Mention two examples of mechanical counting/calculating

devices
2. Who invented the Speeding clock?
3. To perform Multiplication on the Speeding clock, ………… was
added to it
4. The slide rule was invented by …………..
5. Another name for Slide Rule is ……………
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS

CONTENT

1. Electro-mechanical Counting Devices

Electro-mechanical Counting Devices

These are counting devices that could be operated both electrically

and mechanically. Electro-mechanical devices include the following:

1. Speeding Clock
2. Blaise Pascal machine
3. Gottfried Leibniz Machine

SPEEDING CLOCK OR CALCULATING CLOCK

In 1623 and 1624, reported his design and construction of what he

referred to as an arithmetical instrument that he has invented but
which would later be described as a (calculating clock). The machine
was designed to assist in all the four basic functions of arithmetic
(addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). Amongst its uses,
Schickard suggested it would help in the laborious task of
calculating astronomical tables. The machine could add and
subtract six-digit numbers, and indicated an overflow of this
capacity by ringing a bell. The adding machine in the base was
primarily provided to assist in the difficult task of adding or
multiplying two multi-digit numbers. To this end an ingenious
arrangement of rotatable Napier’s bones were mounted on it. It
even had an additional “memory register” to record intermediate
calculations. Schickard’s machine was not programmable.
BLAISE PASCAL’S CALCULATING MACHINE (Pascaline)

Blaise Pascal was a French man who invented the first true adding
machine in 1642. He was a mathematician as well as a philosopher.
In 1642, he began working on calculating machines and after 3
years invented the mechanical calculator called Pascaline.
Blaise Pascal was born in France in 1623 and died in Paris in 1662.
His machine was based on Abacus principle. The machine was built
to assist his father to perform tedious tax accounting (auditing of
government tax accounts). The machine was invented when he was
19 years old. He designed the Pascaline to add and subtract
two numbers directly and to perform multiplication and
division through repeated addition and subtraction.

STEPPED RECKONER

This machine was invented by Gottfried William Von Leibnitz. He

carried out further development on the work of Blaise Pascal so that
multiplication and division could be possible directly. He invented a
machine called “THE STEPPED RECKONER” in 1694. The machine is
a mechanical calculator which can do multiplication, division and
calculate square roots. The process of multiplication involved
repeated addition. It was the first calculator that could perform all
four arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division).

EVALUATION

1. Mention four electro-mechanical counting devices.

2. Who invented the Stepped Reckoner and what year?
3. When was Blaise Pascal’s adding machine invented?
4. The design of Pascaline was based on which principle?
5. The machine was built to assist his father to perform

ELECTRO-MECHANICAL COUNTING DEVICES

CONTENT

1. Electro-mechanical Counting Devices

Electro-mechanical Counting Devices

JOSEPH JACQUARD’S LOOM

The Jacquard machine is a device fitted to a power loom that

simplifies the process of manufacturing textiles with such complex
patterns as brocade, damask and matelassé. It was invented by
Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1804. The loom was controlled by a chain
of cards, a number of punched cards, laced together into a
continuous sequence. Multiple rows of holes were punched on each
card, with one complete card corresponding to one row of the
design. The Jacquard loom was the first machine to use punch cards
to control a sequence of operations.

CHARLES BABBAGE’S MACHINES

Charles Babbage (26 December 1791 – 18 October 1871) was an

English polymath, a mathematician, philosopher, inventor and
mechanical engineer. Babbage originated the concept of a digital
programmable computer. Babbage is credited with inventing the
first mechanical computer that eventually led to more complex
electronic designs, though all the essential ideas of modern
computers are to be found in Babbage’s analytical engine. His
varied work in other fields has led him to be described as “pre-
eminent” among the many polymaths of his century.
He was the first person to design a computer that is different from a
calculator. Charles Babbage is referred to as the father of modern
day computers because all his ideas are contained in modern
computers.
1. DIFFERENCE MACHINE
In 1822, Charles Babbage developed the difference machine that
could perform intricate calculations correctly and rapidly on the
principle that anticipated the modern electronic computer. A
difference engine is an automatic mechanical calculator
designed to tabulate polynomial functions. The name derives
from the method of divided differences, a way to interpolate or
tabulate functions by using a small set of polynomial coefficients.
Most mathematical functions commonly used by engineers,
scientists and navigators, including logarithmic and trigonometric
functions, can be approximated by polynomials, so a difference
engine can compute many useful tables of numbers.

2. ANALYTICAL ENGINE
In 1837, the Analytical Engine was developed and it could be
programmed. That means it can receive instructions and solve
problems given to it. The Analytical Engine was a proposed
mechanical general-purpose computer designed by English
mathematician and computer pioneer Charles Babbage. It was first
described in 1837 as the successor to Babbage’s difference engine,
a design for a mechanical computer. The Analytical Engine
incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of
conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it
the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be
described in modern terms as Turing-complete. In other words, the
logical structure of the Analytical Engine was essentially the same
as that which has dominated computer design in the electronic era.
The Analytical Engine had the following parts:

1. A mill for calculation

2. A store for holding instructions, intermediate and final results
3. An operator (or system) for carrying out instruction
4. A device for ‘reading’ and ‘writing’ data on punched card

EVALUATION

1. Mention the two (2) machines invented by Charles Babbage

and their years of invention
2. Mention at least four (4) parts that make up an analytical
engine
3. Briefly describe the following (i) Jacquard loom (ii) Stepped
Reckoner

HOLLERITH CENSUS MACHINE

Herman Hollerith (February 29, 1860 – November 17, 1929) was

an American statistician and inventor who developed a
mechanical tabulator based on punched cards to rapidly tabulate
statistics from millions of pieces of data. He was the founder of
the Tabulating Machine Company that later merged to
become IBM. Hollerith is widely regarded as the father of modern
automatic computation. The machine was used to process the
information obtained in the census of the population carried out in
the United State in 1890. With this machine, he was able to achieve
in three years what would take seven years to do manually.

PHILIP EMEAGWALI

Dr. Philip Emeagwali, who had been called the Bill Gates of Africa,
was born in Akure, Nigeria on 23 August 1954, invented one of the
world’s fastest computers. He dropped out of school in 1967
because of the Nigerian-Biafran war.
Dr. Philip Emeagwali first hit the limelight in 1989 when he won the
prestigious Gordon Bell Prize for his work with massively parallel
computers. He programmed the connection machine to compute a
world record 3.1 billion calculations per second using 65,536
processors to simulate oil reservoirs. With over 41 inventions, Philip
Emeagwali is making big waves in the super computer industry.

EVALUATION
 1. What was the major contribution of Dr. Philip Emeagwali to the
development of computers
2. List three people who were inventors of electro-mechanical
devices and the machine they invented.
3. Why is Charles Babbage referred to as the father of Computer?

ELECTRONIC COUNTING DEVICES AND MODERN COMPUTER

CONTENT

1. John Von Neumann Machine

2. Modern Machines

JOHN VON NEUMANN’S MACHINE

In 1945, mathematician John von Neumann undertook a study of

computation that demonstrated that a computer could have a
simple, fixed structure, yet be able to execute any kind of
computation given properly programmed control without the need
for hardware modification. Von Neumann contributed a new
understanding of how practical fast computers should be organized
and built; these ideas, often referred to as the stored-program
technique, became fundamental for future generations of
high-speed digital computers and were universally
adopted. The primary advance was the provision of a special type
of machine instruction called conditional control transfer which
permitted the program sequence to be interrupted and reinitiated at
any point, similar to the system suggested by Babbage for his
analytical engine and by storing all instruction programs together
with data in the same memory unit, so that, when desired,
instructions could be arithmetically modified in the same way as
data. Thus, data was the same as program.
The von Neumann architecture is a design model for a stored-
program digital computer that uses a processing unit and a single
separate storage structure to hold both instructions and data. It is
named after the mathematician and early computer scientist John
von Neumann. The terms “von Neumann architecture” and “stored-
program computer” are generally used interchangeably. A stored-
program digital computer is one that keeps its programmed
instructions, as well as its data, in read-write, random
access memory (RAM).
His area of interest included:

1. Use of binary codes for representing data and instructions.

2. Use of codes to store both data and instruction together and
share the same storage location (space) within the computer.
3. Use of computer to process both data and instructions.
4. Modification of programs by programs.

MODERN COMPUTER

The invention of electronic computers transformed the mechanical

way of processing data into information. Those early pocket
calculator were actually the signal of the modern computerized
world w have today. Earlier counting was done in base ten; called
decimal system. It is also possible to count in base eight, six, two
and many more. Electronic computers count in a system based on
0’s and 1’s binary.
EVALUATION

1. Enumerate three areas of interest in John Von Neumann

concept
2. What is the stored program technique?
3. Briefly discuss the similarity between the works of Charles
Babbage and John Von Neumann
FIRST, SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH AND FIFTH GENERATIONS OF
COMPUTERS

CONTENT

1. Generations of Computers
2. First Generation – Vacuum Tubes (1940 – 1956)
3. Second Generation – Transistors (1956 – 1963)
4. Third Generation – Integrated Circuits (IC) (1964 – 1971)
5. Fourth Generation – Very Large Integrated Circuits (1972 –
1984)
6. Fifth Generation – Artificial Intelligence (AI) (1980s to Date)

Generations of Computers

Generation of computers is the developmental stages that the

computer has gone through. There are 5 generations of computers
and their accompanying innovations.

First Generation – Vacuum Tubes (1940 – 1956)

First generation computers were those manufactured between

1940s and 1950s. The computers used the stored program concept.
First generation computers were associated with the vacuum tubes
or valves technology as circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.

Characteristics of the First Generation of Computers

1. They were very bulky and heavy.

2. They measured between 50 – 100ft long and about 80ft high.
3. The computers weighed up to 200 tons and occupied 3000
cubic ft.
4. They used vacuum tubes to store and process data.
5. Examples of first generation computers are ENIAC, EDSAC, and
UNIVAC.
6. It generates a lot of heat
 7. It relies on machine language
8. These computers were limited to solving one problem at a time

Problems of First Generation of Computers

1. The vacuum tubes also generated a lot of heat hence, they

needed a cooling system.
2. They were very bulky and heavy and are not mobile.
3. It occupies excess space.
4. It consumes a lot of energy.

EDSAC

Second Generation – Transistors (1956 – 1963)

The replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors saw the advent of

the second generation of computing. They were a big improvement
over the vacuum tube, despite still subjecting computers to
damaging levels of heat. However they were hugely superior to the
vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, cheaper and less
heavy on electricity use. They still relied on punched card for
input/printouts.
The language evolved from cryptic binary language to symbolic
(assembly) languages. This means, programmers could create
instructions in words. About the same time high level programming
languages were being developed (early versions of COBOL and
FORTRAN). Transistor-driven machines were the first computers to
store instructions into their memories – moving from magnetic drum
to magnetic core-technology. The early versions of these machines
were developed for the atomic energy industry. Examples of second
generation computers are NCR, 315, International Business Machine
(IBM), 7030.

Characteristics of the Second Generation of Computers

1. They were smaller in size than first generation computers.

2. They occupied smaller space than the first generation
computers.
3. Second generation computers used less electricity and
generated less heat.
4. The transistors could do all that the vacuum tubes did.
5. The computers were faster and lighter in weight than first
generation computers.
6. It uses assembly language
7. It uses punch cards for input and output

Third Generation – Integrated Circuits (IC) (1964 – 1971)

By this phase, transistors were reduced and put on silicon chips

(called semiconductors). This led to a massive increase in speed and
efficiency of these machines. These were the first computers where
users interacts using keyboards and monitors used an operating
system. This enabled these machines to run several applications at
once using a central program which functioned to monitor memory.
As a result of these advances which again made machines cheaper
and smaller, a new mass market of users emerged during the
1960s. They were first used in space ships and electronic military
equipment.
Characteristics of Third Generation of Computers

1. The computers used integrated circuits.

2. They were faster than second generation computers.
3. They were smaller in size and also more powerful.
4. The computers had fast memory access.
5. It runs several applications at a time.
6. They were first used in space ships and electronic military
equipment.

Fourth Generation – Very Large Integrated Circuits (1972 – 1984)

Intel The chip-maker developed the Intel 4004 chip in 1971, which
positioned all computer components (CPU, memory, input/output
controls) onto a single chip. What filled a room in the 1940s now fit
in the palm of the hand. The Intel chip housed thousands of
integrated circuits. The year 1981 saw the first ever computer
(IBM) specifically designed for home use and 1984 saw the
Macintosh introduced by Apple. Microprocessors even moved
beyond the realm of computers and into an increasing number of
everyday products.
The increased power of these small computers meant they could be
linked, creating networks which ultimately led to the development,
birth and rapid evolution of the Internet. Other major advances
during this period have been the Graphical user interface
(GUI), the mouse and more recently the astounding
advances in lap-top capability and hand-held devices.
A microprocessor is a central processing unit fabricated on a
chip. This generation of computers had optical readers and graphic
display terminals. The use of floppy diskette as a storage facility was
introduced in this generation. Examples are Intel 4004, Intel
8085, Pentium 1, 2, 3, etc

Characteristics of Fourth Generation of Computers

1. The computers were smaller in size

2. They were very powerful computers
3. They had high processing speed
4. They had high storage capacity
5. They use Graphical User Interface (GUI)
6. They use mouse

Fifth Generation – Artificial Intelligence (AI) (1980s to Date)

Computer devices with artificial intelligence are still in development,

but some of these technologies are beginning to emerge and being
used such as voice recognition.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a reality made possible by using parallel
processing and superconductors. Leaning to the future, computers
will be radically transformed again by quantum computation,
molecular and nano technology.
The essence of fifth generation will be using these technologies to
ultimately create machines which can process and respond to
natural language, and have capability to learn and organize
themselves. They also have the capacity of making decisions and
judgments.
This generation is witnessing the influx of super microcomputers
through artificial intelligence whose main attraction over previous
computers is speed and power.
These are computers that will be able to mimic many things that so
far can only be done by human beings. For example, fifth generation
computers will be able to accept spoken word instruction (voice
recognition) and assist doctors in carrying out diagnosis.

EVALUATION

1. The fifth generation computers made use of …………..

2. The means by which a computer receives spoken word
instruction is called ………….
3. The 3rd generation computers were manufactured between
…………. and …………
4. List two characteristics of 3rd generation computers.
5. First generation computers were manufactured between
………… and …………
6. One of the problems of the first generation computers was that
they generate a lot of ………….
7. …………. was used for storage in the 2nd generation computers.
8. List two examples of 2nd Generation computers.
9. What is a microprocessor?
DATA PROCESSING

CONTENT

1. Definition of Data Processing

2. Data Processing Cycle

Definition of Data Processing

Data processing is the process of producing meaningful information

by collecting all items of data together and performing operations
on them to extract information.
Data processing can also be described as a series of actions or
operations that convert or manipulate data into useful information.
Data processing involves the systematic recording, calculation,
selection and combination of data to obtain facts and disseminate
facts in relation to events in our everyday life. The processing of
data can either be done manually or with the use of electronic
machines. Data processing can involve calculating, sorting, editing
etc.

Data Processing Cycle

Data processing cycle includes the following:

1. Data Gathering

At this stage, data is gathered through various ways such as asking

questions observations, reading books, listening and watching
electronic media (radio and television). For example, giving a
prospective customer a form to fill before opening a bank account is
a form of data gathering.

2. Data Collection

This involves writing out, sorting, summarizing or classifying data

into groups, structures or files. Data is sorted in a way that will make
data processing easy
Data collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and
collecting data. For example: as part of a process improvement or
similar projection. The purpose of data collection is to obtain
information to keep on record, to make decisions about important
issues, to pass information on to other. Primarily, data is collected to
provide information regarding a specific topic.

3. Input Stage

All information is entered into the computer through an input

terminal (eg. mouse, keyboard, web camera etc). Input devices are
devices that accept data in its original format, examples includes
keyboard and mouse. Data is entered through input devices. This is
the process through which collected data is transformed into a form
that computer can understand. It is a very important step in the
data processing cycle because correct output result totally depends
on the input data.

Three steps are involved when inputting data into the computer:

(i) Collection: This refers to gathering the data from a variety of

sources and assembling it.
(ii) Verification: This means checking the data to determine
whether it is accurate and complete, and if it should be included for
processing.
(iii) Coding: This is translating the data into machine-readable form.
Data punched into IBM cards is one example of coding.

4. Processing Stage

During processing or manipulation, one or more of the following

tasks may be performed on the input data.
(i) Classifying: Data are organized by characteristics meaningful to
the user. For example, a student may be identified by the admission
number and class.
(ii) Sorting: In this step, the data may be arranged in a particular
sequence to facilitate processing.
(iii) Calculating: Calculations may be required to determine a
patient’s account balance or a student’s grade point average.
(iv) Summarizing: This involves reducing a large document into a
smaller size containing important points.
At this particular stage, data is converted (processed) into
information.

5. Storage Stage

All computers need to store and retrieve data for processing.

Storage can be grouped into two categories primary storage and
secondary storage.
(i) Primary Storage: The primary storage, also called main
memory or Immediate Access Store (IMAS), resides in the computer.
This is necessary since the processing unit can only act on data and
instructions that are held in primary storage. Primary storage
consists of two types of memory chips. These are Random Access
Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM) chips.
(ii) Secondary Storage: This is needed to store data and
information on a permanent basis for later use. Examples of
secondary storage devices are floppy disk, hard disk, zip drives,
flash drives etc.
6. Output Stage

After completing the processing step, output is generated. The

result of the data processed is printed out from the printer. Mostly,
the output is stored on the storage media for later use. If the
output result is accurate, the data processing cycle is
completed.
Output activities include the following;
(i) Retrieving: involves pulling information from storage device for
use by the decision-maker.
(ii) Converting: means translating information from the computer
form used to store it, to a form understandable by the user (such as,
a CRT display or printed report).
(iii) Storing: involves transferring the data onto a storage medium,
such as a disk or tape file for future use.
(iv) Communication: takes place when the relevant accurate
information is in the right place at the right time.
EVALUATION

1. What is data processing?

2. List and explain the stages involved in data processing.
3. What is the condition that makes data processing complete?

IMPORTANCE OF THE COMPUTER AS A TOOL FOR DATA

PROCESSING

CONTENT

1. The Importance of the Computer as a Tool for Data Processing

The Importance of the Computer as a Tool for Data Processing

The computer is a very unique electronic device and has certain

features and characteristics that distinguish it from other machines.
These include:
1. Speed: Computers are very fast; they can perform tens of
millions of operations per second. This is necessary for predicting
weather forecasts, performing scientific research and even
producing thousands of bills for utility companies.
2. Accuracy: Computers are very accurate. Errors only occur if
there is an error in hardware, software or data. When errors occur it
is usually because of some human error, since computers can only
do what they are programmed to do.
3. Storing large amounts of information in a small
space: There are many storage media that can be used to store
large volumes of data and information. For example, a single CD-
ROM disk can save the equivalent of a shelf of books in the library.
4. Working continuously: Computers can work continuously for
long periods without much maintenance.
5. Quality: The type of output produced by the computer is far
better than other electronic machines. Document is best prepared
by the use of the computers.
6. Control and consistency: The computer has automatic control
and can operate for a very long time without getting exhausted. This
is because a computer works under the guide of a program, and has
an in-built cooling fan, or heat sink that makes it work all day long.
7. Reliability: The computer responds to the instruction keyed into
it without any alteration, as a result of this, it gives no room for
doubt over output. Therefore, the operator relies on it for
effectiveness.
Example include a program computer device to ring alarm to alert
workers of any emergency, a programmed entry and exit door used
in big companies and supermarkets, offices, etc.
8. Versatility: The computer is used in different fields of human
endeavour ranging from business, education, technology,
engineering, law, commerce, agriculture, medicine, sports, etc. It
can perform different types of tasks provided such tasks can be
stated in logical way for the computer to execute. The computer is
used to type letters, watch films, play music, etc.
9. Large Storage Capacity: Vast quantities of data stored in paper
files would become extremely bulky and require substantial storage
space. Furthermore, the job of manually extracting data from such
files would
become increasingly tedious and time consuming as the size of the
files increases. But with the computer, data can be stored
electronically in considerable less space, and retrieve in a fraction of
the time needed
by the manual method. The ability of the computer to store, retrieve
and process data, all without human intervention gives it power and
advantage over that of human beings. So, while human can perform
the same function as the computer, the difference and major
benefits is that the computer can reliably execute millions of
instructions in a second and stored the result in an almost unlimited
memory.
10. Programmability: The computer can be programmed to do all
forms of activities of man so long as the task is reduced to a series
of logical steps. Programming in computer means the act of writing
computer programs and this involves the use of special set of
characters, signs, symbols, to supply instruction to the computer for
execution towards achieving specific tasks (motives). This
opportunity gave room for the computer to be a versatile system.

EVALUATION

1. What are the different features that make the computer an

excellent tool for data processing?
2. Explain what it means for a computer to be versatility
3. Can computers make mistake? No/Yes? Give reasons for your
answer